Mbiri ya Kenya

Chigaŵa chinyake cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, icho sono chikuchemeka Kenya, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mwenemumo kwamba mu nyengo ya Lower Paleolithic. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ku Kenya kuli mitundu yinandi ya ŵanthu, ndipo charu ichi chili pa mphambano ya mitundu ya Bantu, Nilo-Sahara, na Afro-Asia.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe na Ŵaarabu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Mombasa ŵakamba kuŵako mu nyengo ya kuuyambiro wa nyengo yithu, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda malo agha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ufumu wa Britain ukakhazikiska East Africa Protectorate mu 1895, kufuma mu 1920 yikamanyikwa kuti Kenya Colony.

Mu 1963, charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Charu ichi chikalongozgekanga na wupu wa Kenya African National Union (KANU), uwo ukalongozgekanga na Jomo Kenyatta kufuma mu 1963 m'paka 1978. Kufuma apo, Daniel arap Moi ndiyo wakalongozga mpaka mu 2002. Moi wakayezga kusintha chalo cha Kenya icho chikaŵa na chipani chimoza mu ma 1980, kweni Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikati yamara, vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi vikaleka kuzomerezga nkhaza na kutambuzga ŵanthu.

Mubali Moi wakasuzgika chomene na Smith Hempstone, uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa ku United States, kuti waŵeso na vipani vinandi. Moi wakathereska pa mavoti gha mu 1992 na 1997, agho ghakaŵa na vifukwa vya ndyali. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ukaboni ukulongora kuti Moi wakachitanga vinthu viheni na vimbundi nga ni nkhani ya Goldenberg. Wakazomerezgeka yayi kwimilira pa mavoti gha mu 2002, agho Mwai Kibaki ndiyo wakathereska. Vinthu vyambura urunji ivyo vikacitika pa nyengo ya visankho vya mu 2007 vikapangiska kuti mu Kenya muŵeko masuzgo gha mu 2007 na 2008. Kibaki wakasankhika na Uhuru Kenyatta mu mavoti gha 2013. Pakaŵa milandu yakuti mpikisano wake Raila Odinga ndiyo wakathereska, kweni khoti likuru chomene la Supreme Court likati lawona ukaboni wakukwana, likasanga kuti pakaŵavya viheni ivyo vikacitika pa nyengo ya mavoti gha 2013 kufuma ku IEBC na Jubilee Party ya Uhuru Kenyatta. Uhuru wakasankhikaso mu 2017. Kweni ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya kupambana kwake. Khoti likuru likati Uhuru watonda pamanyuma pakuti Raila Odinga wakususka ivyo vikachitika kwizira mu petition iyo khoti likuru likapeleka. Raila Odinga pamasinda wakawukiraso mavoti agho khoti likalangura kuti ghachitikenge, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti Uhuru Kenyatta waleke kususkika na 98% ya mavoti.

Nyengo ya Paleolithic

Wonaniso: Early Stone Age, Middle Stone Age, and Later Stone Age

Mu 1929, ukaboni wakwamba wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵako kale chomene ku Kenya ukawoneka apo Louis Leakey wakabowozga minwe ya Acheulian iyo yikaŵa na vyaka pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Pamanyuma, vinyama vinandi vyakwambilira vikasangika mu Kenya. Cinthu cikuru comene ico ŵakasanga ni Orrorin tugenensis, ca vyaka 6 miliyoni, ico ŵakakoperapo pa Tugen Hills. Ni visomba vya ŵanthu vyakukhora comene pa caru cose.

Mu 1995, Meave Leakey wakathya mtundu uphya wa Australopithecus anamensis, pamanyuma pakuti ŵasanga visomba vinandi kufupi na Nyanja ya Turkana mu 1965, 1987 na 1994. Lili na vyaka pafupifupi 4.1 miliyoni.:35

Mu 2011, ku Lomekwi, kufupi na Nyanja ya Turkana, ŵakasanga vinthu vyaka 3.2 miliyoni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalembapo kale chomene.

Yimoza mwa viwangwa vya ŵanthu vyakumanyikwa comene na vyakumalirapo ivyo vikavumbukwa ni Homo erectus uyo wakaŵa na vyaka 1.6 miliyoni, ndipo wakucemeka Nariokotome Boy. Kamoya Kimeu ndiyo wakasanga chiwangwa ici mu 1984 apo Richard Leakey ndiyo wakalongozganga.

Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo vikusangika pa charu chapasi vikufuma ku West Turkana, ndipo vikulongora kuti vikaŵa vyaka pafupifupi 1.76 miliyoni ivyo vikaŵako mu 2011.

Charu cha East Africa, kusazgapo charu cha Kenya, ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakhalenge. Mu 2018, pa malo gha Olorgesailie, ku Kenya, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalemba mabuku ghatatu mu 2018 ŵakayowoya kuti ukaboni wa nkharo izi ukusangika mu nyengo ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu Africa (nga ni awo ŵakaŵako ku Jebel Irhoud na Florisbad). Mu 2021 pakaŵa ukaboni unyake wakuti ŵanthu ŵakachitanga nthena. Mu mphanji ya Panga ya Saidi ŵakasanga dindi la mwana wa vyaka vitatu ilo lili na vyaka 78,000. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti mutu wa mwana uyu ukaŵa nga waŵikika pa pilo. Thupi ili likaŵa mu nthumbo. Michael Petraglia, pulofesa wa vya kusanduka kwa ŵanthu na mbiri yakale pa Max Planck Institute, wakati, "Ni malo ghakale comene ghakusungako ŵanthu mu Africa. Vikutovwira kumanya umo tikuwonera vinthu, umo tikucitira vinthu na ŵanyithu, ndiposo umo tikucitira vinthu.”

Nyengo ya Neolithic

Wonaniso: Pastoral Neolithic, Savanna Pastoral Neolithic, and Elmenteitan

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Kenya ŵakaŵa ŵalovi na ŵakuwunjika vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kansyore awo ŵakakhalanga pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E. na 1500 B.C.E., ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kupanga vinthu vya ku East Africa. Chikaya ichi chikaŵa ku Gogo Falls mu chigaŵa cha Migori kufupi na Nyanja ya Victoria. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mu miyala ku Kenya vili kulembeka pakati pa 2000 B.C.E. na 1000 C.E. Cizgoŵi ici cikakura comene pa cirwa ca Mfangano, mapiri gha Chelelemuk, Namoratunga na Lewa Downs. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti vinthu ivi vikalembeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa, awo kale ŵakakhalanga ku East Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinandi ivyo vikalimanga vyakurya ndipo ŵakamba kusamira ku Kenya kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E.

Pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku Kenya kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Ŵakaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto, nga ni ng'ombe, mberere, mbuzi, na mbunda. Malo ghanyake agho ghakusangika mu nyengo iyi ni Namoratunga, agho ghali kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Turkana. Malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na majalawe ghakuru chomene nga ni Lothagam North Pillar Site, ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba na ghakuru chomene ku East Africa. Pa dindi ili pali vitanda pafupifupi 580. Kufika mu 1000 B.C.E. panji kumasinda wuwo, viŵeto vikafika ku Kenya na kumpoto kwa Tanzania. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Ol Doinyo Eburru pafupi na Nyanja ya Nakuru kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵakamba kuliska viŵeto.

Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cushitic ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Tanzania kufupi na Nyanja ya Eyasi. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakayowoyeranga mu viyowoyero vinyake, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Highland Savanna.

Kwamba mu 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku South Nilotic awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakasamira kumwera ku vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Kenya.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Nilotes ŵakiza ku Kenya pambere chisulo chindafike ku East Africa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakaŵako kale chomene, nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera mazina gha malo, mazgu agho ŵakagwiliskira ntchito na maluso agho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga.

Nyengo ya Chitsulo

Wonaniso: Bantu expansion, Nilotic expansion, and Iron metallurgy in Africa

Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku West Africa ŵakamba kupanga visulo mu 3000-2500 B.C.E. Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chibantu ŵakafumako ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa kuti ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi, pakati na kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵakaŵa na luso lwa kupanga visulo na maluso gha ulimi apo ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika ku Kenya cha m'ma 1000 B.C.E.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Urewe ndiwo ŵakacitanga kupanga visulo vyakale comene mu Africa. Kufuma mu 550 B.C.E. m'paka 650 B.C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, kusazgapo Kenya. Ku Kenya kuli malo nga ni Urewe, Yala na Uyoma kumpoto kwa Nyanza. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, ŵakamba kupanga visulo ivyo vikaŵawovwiranga kupanga visulo vya karboni.

Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake ku Tanzania. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵasanga vikulongora kuti mu 100 B.C.E. m'paka 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chibantu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vya Misasa ku Tanzania, Kwale ku Kenya, na Ras Hafun ku Somalia. Kweniso ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja. Pakati pa 300 AD-1000 AD, kwizira mu nthowa ya malonda ya ku Indian Ocean, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na India, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakure.

Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Luo ŵakamba kusamira ku Western Kenya. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake vya Nile (makamaka Acholi na Padhola) awo ŵakafuma ku South Sudan na kuluta ku Uganda na kunjira ku Kenya. Apo ŵakasamukiranga ku Kenya na Tanzania, ŵakasangananga na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana.

Malo ghakuzingilizgika na viliŵa gha Thimlich Ohinga, ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene pa malo 138 agho ghakazengeka kuzingilizga chigaŵa cha Nyanza. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba na awo ŵakusanda malulimi ŵakuyowoya vikulongora kuti malo agha ghakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 550. Para ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵakuwona malo agha ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya mdauko, viyowoyero, na majini, ŵakulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakazenga, kusunga, na kukhala mu malo agha ŵakaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana..

Chikhalidwe cha Chiswahili ndi malonda

Wonaniso: Swahili people, Shirazi people, Swahili culture, Islam in Kenya, and History of Mombasa

Ŵanthu ŵa ciSwahili ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Indian Ocean ku South East Africa. Charu ichi chili na virwa vinandi, misumba na matawuni nga ni Sofala, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Comoros, Mombasa, Gede, Malindi, Pate Island na Lamu. Mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, chigaŵa ichi chikachemekanga Azania. Buku la Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ni mupukutu wa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma uwo ukalembeka m'ma 100 C.E. Likulongosora za mumphepete mwa nyanja ya East Africa (Azania) na nthowa iyo ŵanthu ŵakendangamo mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Ku East Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi kufuma mu 3000 B.C.E. Vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kuzenga viŵiya na kulima vikusangika mumphepete mwa nyanja na pa virwa vinyake. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ku vyaru vinyake nga ni viŵiya vya ku Greece na Roma, viŵiya vya ku Siriya, viŵiya vya ku Persia vya ku Sassania, na malibwe gha ku Tanzania, ivyo vikamba mu 600 B.C.E. vikusangika mu chigaŵa cha Mlonga wa Rufiji.

Mu 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakasamukira ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakalutilira kusama na kuluta kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha awo ŵakakumana nawo mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku Swahili Coast ŵakusangika ku Kwale, Kenya, Misasa, Tanzania, na Ras Hafun, Somalia. Ku Kenya kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kuzenga visulo, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku East Bantu awo ŵakakhalanga ku mizi, awo ŵakaliskanga somba na kuvwara visulo. Pakati pa 300 C.E. na 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Azanian na Zanj awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili ŵakalutilira kukura. Pakati pa 500 na 800 C.E., ŵakamba kwenda pa nyanja na kwamba kusama. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska vinthu nga ni golide, mino gha zovu, na ŵazga mu vyaru vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuŵa mu misumba iyo yikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Roma.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu misumba ya Mombasa, Malindi, na Zanzibar ŵakamba kuchita malonda na Ŵaarabu. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵalutilire kuŵa na ndalama zinandi, Chisilamu chikamba kwiza, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kusambira chiyowoyero ichi. Chisopa cha Cisilamu chikamba kusazgikira mu Africa pakati pa 614 AD na 900 AD. Kwambira apo ŵalondezgi ŵa ntchimi Muhammad ŵakafikanga ku Ethiopia, chisopa cha Chisilamu chikafika mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi, kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakakhalanga mu misumba iyi ŵakamba kuchita malonda. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ndiwo ŵakambiska misumba iyi, kweni ŵasayansi ŵakumanya kuti misumba iyi yikaŵa ya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Azanian na Zanj ŵakasangananga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Fundo iyi yikuwoneka mu ciyowoyero, cikaya, na luso lwa maluso ivyo vikucitika mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mwaciyerezgero, pakati pa 630 AD - 890 AD, maukaboni ghakulongora kuti visulo vyakukolera vikapangikanga ku Galu, kumwera kwa Mombasa. Ŵasayansi awo ŵakasanda vinthu vyachisulo, ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana. Mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1000 na 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu misumba iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Malibwe ghakale chomene agho ghakasangika pa malo ghakusungako vinthu gha ku Gedi ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi. Kweniso malemba ghakale chomene gha Chiswahili agho ghalipo sono, ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi. Vikalembeka na vilembo vyakale vya Ciswahili (vilembo vya Ciswahili na Cirabishi) vyakuyana na vilembo vya Cirabishi. Ili ni lemba ilo likasangika pa malibwe ghakale chomene.

Munthu munyake wa ku Morocco, zina lake Ibn Battuta, wakaluta ku Mombasa mu 1331. Wakulongosora kuti Mombasa ni cirwa cikuru ico cili na makuni gha banane, mandimu na mandimu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu ŵa chisopa cha Sunni, ndipo wakaŵazunura kuti "mbanthu ŵakusopa, ŵakugomezgeka, na ŵarunji". Wakayowoya kuti masisiteri ghawo ghakaŵa gha makuni ndipo ghakazengeka mwaluso. Munthu munyake uyo wakendanga mu charu cha China zina lake Zheng He, wakaluta ku Malindi mu 1418. Ngalaŵa zake zinyake zikwenera kuti zikamira kufupi na cirwa ca Lamu. Kafukufuku uyo wakacitika sonosono apa wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa ŵa ku China.

ChiSwahili, chiyowoyero cha Bantu icho chili na mazgu ghanandi gha mu Chiarabu, chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakasopanga Chiswahili. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ŵakagwilira ntchito na kusamira ku charu chinyake. Mu nyengo ya ku Middle Ages,

Ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili ku East Africa [kusazgapo Zanzibar] kukaŵa malo ghakutowa na ghakutowa, agho ghakaŵa na misumba yinandi ya ŵamalonda. Vinthu vikendanga makora mu misumba iyi chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵakendanga pakati pa ŵamalonda ŵa ku India, Persia, Arabia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Africa, na China. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ndiwo ŵakasambizganga Ciswahili. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakamba kulemba viyowoyero vyawo. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakaŵa ŵamalonda ŵasambazi awo chifukwa cha usambazi wawo, ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa misumba ya mumphepete mwa nyanja.

Vinthu vya ku Portugal na Oman

Wonaniso: Vasco da Gama, Portuguese Empire, Omani Empire, and Said bin Sultan

Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Portugal ŵakiza ku Africa. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kukhazikiska malo ghakukhala ŵanthu, kweni ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska misasa ya ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja kuti ŵachitire ufumu wa ku India. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ŵakathereska Ŵapwitikizi ku Kenya.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ku Europe kusanda charu icho sono chikuchemeka Kenya. Vasco da Gama wakaluta ku Mombasa mu Epulero 1498. Ulendo wa Da Gama ukafika ku India (Meyi 1498), ndipo ukayambiska malonda gha ku Portugal na kumwera kwa Asia. (Kasi Republic of Venice yikamba kuwusa pawuli? Ŵakapanga ndalama zinandi pa malonda gha pakati pa Europe na Asia. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman ŵakati ŵapoka msumba wa Constantinople mu 1453, ŵakakanizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Turkey kwenda pa misewu ya ku Europe na India. (Portugal yikagomezganga kuti nthowa ya pa nyanja iyo da Gama wakambiska yizamumazga masuzgo gha ndyali, gha ŵamazaza, na gha msonkho.)

Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kulamulira ku East Africa, ndipo ŵakakhalanga ku Mombasa. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mu 1505, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku nyanja awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Dom Francisco de Almeida ŵakathereska chilumba cha Kilwa, icho chili kumwera kwa Tanzania.

Chifukwa chakuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhalanga ku East Africa, ŵakendanga mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na kujandizga nthowa za pa nyanja izo zikakolerananga Europe na Asia. Ngalaŵa za ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal zikasuzganga malonda gha ŵalwani ŵa ku Portugal mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Indian, ndipo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵagulirenge msonkho ukuru pa vinthu ivyo ŵakendeskanga, chifukwa chakuti ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghakutowa chomene. Kuzenga Fort Jesus ku Mombasa mu 1593 kukawovwira kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵalutilire kulamulira chigaŵa ichi. Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ndiwo ŵakasuzganga chomene Ŵapwitikizi ku East Africa. Mu 1698, ŵasilikari ŵa Oman ŵakapoka msumba wa Fort Jesus, kweni mu 1728 ŵakaluza msumba uwu. Kweni mu 1730 ŵanthu ŵa ku Oman ŵakachimbizga Ŵapwitikizi awo ŵakakhalapo ku Kenya na Tanzania. Pa nyengo iyi, Ufumu wa Portugal ukaŵa kuti waleka kale kukopeka na malonda gha vyakununkhira. (Madera agho ghakaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Ŵapwitikizi, na malo ghanyake ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mozambique m'paka mu 1975.)

Mu nyengo ya Seyyid Said (uyo wakawusa mu 1807 m'paka mu 1856), uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Oman ndipo wakasamuskira msumba wake ukuru ku Zanzibar mu 1824, [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Ŵaarabu ŵakambiska masitima ghakurughakuru ghakwendamo mu Africa. Ku vigaŵa vyamumpoto kukaŵa viŵeto vinandi yayi. Kumwera, ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵalimi ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kuphalizgana malo chifukwa misewu ya mitunda yitali yikaŵakumananga na nyanja ya Kenyan kumafumiro gha dazi na maufumu gha Uganda kumanjiliro gha dazi.

Mbiri ya m'ma 1800

Wonaniso: Indian Ocean slave trade

Wonani vinandi: Muscat and Oman

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Oman awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya ku Kenyan na Tanzania ŵakamba kulamulira misumba iyi. Nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kumanyuma, Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ŵakathereskanga vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja pera. Ndipouli, Seyyid Said wakambiska vyaru vinyake, ndipo mu 1839 wakambiska malonda gha ŵazga na kusamuskira msumba ukuru wa Oman ku Zanzibar. Kuguliska ŵazga kukayamba kuchepa comene kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1700, apo mu Zanzibar mukaŵa msika ukuru wa ŵazga. Apo Sultan Seyyid Said wakasamuskira msumba wake ku Zanzibar, minda yikuru ya clove na spice yikalutilira kukura. Ŵazga aŵa ŵakafumanga ku vigaŵa vya kumanyuma. Ŵazga ŵakendanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa Kenya m'paka ku mapiri gha Phiri la Kenya, Nyanja ya Victoria na Nyanja ya Baringo.

Boma la Ŵaarabu likalutilira kulamulira virwa vikuruvikuru vyose mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalutilire kugwiliskira ntchito'malibwe gha ku India' na kupanga malonda pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵika mphindano pa boma la Oman. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakamazga chomene malonda gha ŵazga. Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ŵakakhumbanga yayi kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Royal Navy awo ŵakakhumbanga kukanizga ŵazga. Nga ni umo phangano la Moresby likalongolera, apo Oman wakakhumbanga mazaza pa maji ghake, Seyyid Said wakawona kuti palije cifukwa cakuti wanjilirengepo pa malonda gha ŵazga, cifukwa awo ŵakaguranga ŵazga ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe. Nga ni umo Farquhar wakayowoyera mu kalata yake, malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Europe agho ghakacitikanga ku Western Indian Ocean ghakamara pekha para Sayidi wanjilirapo. Pakuti boma la Oman likalutilira kuŵapo mu Zanzibar na Pemba m'paka mu 1964, boma la Oman likalutilira yayi kuŵapo mu Kenya cifukwa cakuti ŵa German na British ŵakakora malo ghakuru gha ku Kenani na kupanga ubwezi na ŵalongozgi ŵa mu charu ichi mu ma 1880. Ndipouli, chiharo cha Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, pasono chikuwoneka kwizira mu ŵana ŵawo ŵanandi awo ŵakusangika mumphepete mwa nyanja.

Msumba wakwamba wa Cikhristu ukazengeka pa Ogasiti 25, 1846, na Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, wa ku Germany, uyo wakawovwirika na Church Missionary Society of England.:561 Wakakhazikiska msasa pakati pa Mijikenda ku Rabai mumphepete mwa nyanja. Pamanyuma, wakang'anamura Baibolo mu Chiswahili. Ŵazga ŵanandi awo ŵakathaskika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhalanga kuno. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora chomene pakati pa 1875 na 1884. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ku Kenyan kukaŵa ŵazga 47,000, awo ŵakakwimira 44 peresenti ya ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi. Mu 1874, msumba wa Frere Town ukaŵa ku Mombasa. Malo agha ghakaŵa gha ŵazga awo ŵakathaskika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain. Nangauli boma la Britain likakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kuguliska ŵazga ku East Africa, kweni ŵakalutilira kuguliska ŵazga m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900.

Kuzakafika mu 1850, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kupanga mapu gha vyaru vya mukati.:229 Mu hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vitatu vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵambe kutemwa vyaru vya ku East Africa.:560 Chakwamba, kukaŵa chirwa cha Zanzibar, icho chili kufupi na nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.:560 Zanzibar yikaŵa malo ghakusangirako ŵanthu awo ŵakendeskanga malonda na kupenjerezga vyaru vya ku Africa.:560 Kuzakafika mu 1840, kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar ŵavikilire vyakusanguluska vyawo, ku Britain, France, Germany, na ku America, ŵakajura maofesi gha ŵasilikari. Mu 1859, matani gha ngaraŵa za ku vyaru vinyake izo zikafikanga ku Zanzibar ghakaŵa matani 19,000.:561 Mu 1879, matani gha ngaraŵa izi ghakaŵa matani 89,000. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikapangiska kuti ŵa ku Europe ŵambe kutemwa comene vyakurya vya ku Africa, nchakuti ŵakakhumbanga comene vyakurya vya ku Africa, nga ni njovu na cinkhara. Cacitatu, caru ca Britain cikamba kukhumba comene kumazga malonda gha ŵazga mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pamanyuma pa vyaka ivi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵa ku Germany.

Ufumu wa Britain (1895-1963)

East Africa Protectorate

Nkhani ikulu: East Africa Protectorate

Wonaniso: Imperial British East Africa Company, Uganda Railway, Nandi Resistance, and Mekatilili Wa Menza

Mu 1895, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi ndipo likati chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Naivasha. Mu 1902, mphaka iyi yikasazgikira ku Uganda, ndipo mu 1920, chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka koloni la ufumu. Mu 1895, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi. Mu ma 1920, ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakasuska kuti malo agha ghapelekeke ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain. Ŵazungu ŵakalimanga chomene khofi ndipo ŵakagwiranga ntchito za ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kikuyu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku India na ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kwambana.

Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa chomene ndipo nyengo zose ŵanthu ŵakusamukiranga ku malo agha na kutimbana. Ku South Africa kukaŵavya vinthu vyakututuŵa ivyo vikakopa ŵanthu ŵanandi.

Mu 1885, ufumu wa Germany ukakhazikiska boma la ku Zanzibar, ndipo mu 1888, kampani ya British East Africa Company (BEAC) ya Sir William Mackinnon yikamba kugwira ntchito mu charu ichi. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu 1890, apo boma la Germany likapeleka malo ghake ku Britain. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakakanizganga awo ŵakalondezganga boma ili: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, mulongozgi wa Kikuyu uyo wakalamuliranga Dagoretti, wakawotcha linga la Lugard mu 1890. Pakati pajumpha vilimika viŵiri, Wayaki wakakoleka na Ŵacigiriki na kukomeka.

Pamanyuma pa masuzgo ghakuru gha ndalama gha British East Africa Company, boma la Britain pa Julayi 1, 1895, likakhazikiska boma la ku East Africa Protectorate.

mapu yamu 1911

Cinthu cinyake ico cikawovwira kuti caru ca Kenya ciŵe cakutowa ni njanji iyo yikambira ku Mombasa kuya ku Kisumu, pa Nyanja ya Victoria. Iyi yikaŵa njanji yakwamba ya ku Uganda. Boma la Britain likaghanaghana vya kuzenga njanji iyo yikakolerananga Mombasa na charu cha Uganda. Mu 1903, ŵakazenga njanji yikuru ya Uganda (iyo yikaŵa njanji iyo yikalongozgera ku Uganda) iyo yikaŵa ntchito yikuru chomene. Pakuŵa kazembe wa Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard wakawovwira chomene pakwambiska ndondomeko ya kusazgirako misewu ya njanji iyo yikalongozgera ku kuzenga misewu ya Nairobi-Thika na Konza-Magadi.

Ŵantchito pafupifupi 32,000 ŵakafuma ku Britain ku India kuti ŵakagwire nchito iyi. Ŵanandi ŵakakhalako, nga ni ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵa ku India na ŵamalonda ŵacokoŵacoko awo ŵakawona mwaŵi wa kujura vigaŵa vya mukati mwa Kenya. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakazgoŵera kulima kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo m'malo mwa kulima vyakurya vyakununkhira, boma likaghanaghana kuti likhozge ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe kuti ŵakhalenge mu vigaŵa vya mapiri. Njanji iyi yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya mukati ŵa Europe, ŵalimi, ŵamishonale, na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa boma, ŵamanye umo ŵangachitira na wuzga, ufwiti, matenda, na njara. Ŵafrika ŵakawonanga kuti ufwiti uli na nkhongono comene pa umoyo wawo ndipo kanandi ŵakacitanga nkhaza na ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti mbafwiti. Kuti ivi vileke kucitika, boma la Britain likapeleka malango ghakukanizga mauloŵevu kwambira mu 1909. Malango agha ghakapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici kuti ŵaleke kucita nkhaza.

Apo njanji iyi yikazengekanga, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakaleka kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakamba kudandawura cifukwa ca ndondomeko ya ku Europe. Kazembe Percy Girouard wakukolerana na ivyo vikachitika pa phangano laciŵiri la Maasai ilo likacitika mu 1911, ilo likaŵapangiska kuti ŵafumemo mu malo gha Laikipia na kuluta ku Ngong. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Britain na ŵazungu ŵakufuma ku South Africa) ŵafike ku malo agha, Ŵamaasai ŵakakhala mu mapiri gha kumwera kwa Loieta mu 1913. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kikuyu ŵakakhumbanga malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwona kuti ŵakapokako yayi chiharo chawo.

Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa maboma, boma likathembanga ŵanthu awo ŵakadumbiskananga, kanandi ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi. Apo boma likamba kulamulira ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora, ŵanalume ŵawukirano awo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafuma waka ku sukulu ŵakamba kwendera lumoza na ŵalongozgi ŵalara mu mipingo ya ku malo agha.

Pakuzenga njanji iyi, Ŵabritishi ŵakasangana na ŵanthu ŵakususka comene, comenecomene Koitalel Arap Samoei, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Nandi. Kwa vilimika 10, wakalimbana na awo ŵakazenganga njanji. Mu 1907, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakapika mwaŵi wa kuyowoyapo pa nkhani za boma kwizira mu wupu wakuwona vya malango, uwo ukaŵa wupu wa ku Europe. Kweni pakuti mazaza ghanandi ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha Kazembe, ŵakukhazikika mu charu ichi ŵakamba kucitiska kuti Kenya waŵe malo gha ufumu. Ŵakafiska cilato ici mu 1920, na kuzgora wupu uwu kuŵa wakwimira comene ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici. Kweni Ŵafrika ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kunjira ndyali mpaka mu 1944, apo ŵaŵiri ŵakwamba ŵa mu wupu uwu ŵakazomerezgeka..

Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose

Nkhani ikulu: East African campaign (World War I)

Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1914-1918), caru ca Kenya cikazgoka cigaŵa ca ŵasilikari ŵa Britain cifukwa cakuti ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵathereske caru ca Germany. Nkhondo yikati yamba mu Ogasiti 1914, maboma gha British East Africa na German East Africa ghakakolerana kuti ghaleke kurwa nkhondo. Ndipouli, Lt. Col. Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck wakatora mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa Germany, ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa Britain. Von Lettow wakaŵa kutali comene na caru ca Germany, ndipo wakacitanga nkhondo ya nkhondo ya ŵasilikari. Paumaliro wakajipeleka ku Zambia mazuŵa 11 pamanyuma pakuti ŵasaina phangano la kuleka nkhondo mu 1918. Kuti ŵalondezge von Lettow, Ŵacigiriki ŵakatuma ŵasilikari ŵa Indian Army kufuma ku India, ndipo ŵakakhumbikwiranga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵayeghe katundu. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Carrier Corps likapangika ndipo paumaliro likawovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakujumpha 400,000, ndipo likaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵe na maghanoghano gha ndyali.

Charu cha Kenya

Nkhani ikulu: Kenya Colony

Wonaniso: White Highlands, Harry Thuku, Kikuyu Central Association, Mumboism, and Luo Union (Welfare Organisation)

Ku Nyanza kumwera, kukaŵa gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga muwuso wa Britain. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakamba kuliwona kuti ni chisopa chautesi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, gulu ili likucemeka kuti Anti-Colonial Movement. Mu 1913, Onyango Dunde wa ku Kavirondo wakati wakatumika na Ciuta njoka wa mu Nyanja ya Victoria, Mumbo kuti wapharazge visambizgo vyake. Boma ili likawona kuti gulu ili likususka mazaza ghawo cifukwa ca cisambizgo ca Mumbo. Mumbo wakalayizga kuti wazamucimbizga ŵakoloni na awo ŵakaŵawovwiranga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵavya nkhongono zakuchitira nkhondo na Ŵabritishi. Ntheura, gulu ili likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵagomezge kuti ufumu wa ŵasilikari umalirenge. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo na wa Kisii ŵakamba kusopa vikozgo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵakakanizga gulu ili mwa kuwufumiska mu charu chawo na kuŵakaka mu jele mu vyaka vya m'ma 1920 na 1930. Mu 1954, boma likakanizga vyakusanguluska ivi.

Vinthu vyakwamba ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵambeso kwendera ndyali mu charu cha Kenya vikaŵa vyakususka fundo za ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi. Pambere nkhondo yindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamanyanga vinandi yayi. Kweni nkhondo yikati yamara, masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo chifukwa cha misonkho yiphya, malipiro ghakukhizgika, kweniso ŵanthu ŵaphya awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵakhale mu vyaru vya ku Africa, ghakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambeso kusama. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakasambira mu nkhondo iyi, pamoza na kukhazikiskika kwa charu cha Kenya icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵazungu, vikawovwira kuti paŵe ndyali. Ishmael Ithongo wakacema ungano wakwamba wa ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Meyi 1921 kuti wakane kucepeskeka kwa malipiro gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Harry Thuku wakambiska bungwe la Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) ndipo wakambiska buku lakucemeka Tangazo ilo likasuskanga boma na mautumiki. Gulu la YKA likawovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Kikuyu kuti ŵatemwenge charu chawo. YKA yikapeleka malo ku Kikuyu Association (KA) iyo yikaŵa wupu wa fuko uwo ukamanyikwanga na Harry Thuku kuŵa mulembi wake. Kwizira mu KA, Thuku wakavikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Pakughanaghana kuti nchambura mahara kuti gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghaŵo liŵe la fuko limoza, Thuku wakasintha zina la wupu wake kuŵa East African Association ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanandi ŵaŵepo. Boma likamupa mulandu Thuku kuti wakuwukira boma, ndipo likamukora na kumujalira mu jele mpaka mu 1930.

Ku Kavirondo (pambuyo pake chigawo cha Nyanza), kunyanyala ku sukulu ya umishonale, komwe kunakonzedwa ndi Daudi Basudde, kunadzutsa nkhawa chifukwa cha kuwonongeka kwa umwini wa nthaka ku Africa chifukwa chosintha kuchokera ku East African Protectorate kupita ku Kenya Colony. Maungano ghanandi agho ghakachemekanga kuti "Piny Owacho" (Lizgu la Ŵanthu) ghakafika pa msinkhu ukuru mu Disembala 1921, ndipo ghakachiska ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mabuku ghakulongosora katundu wawo, kuwuskamo ndondomeko ya kipande, na kuŵa na misonkho yiwemi. Muteŵeti Mukuru W. E. Owen, uyo wakaŵa mishonale wa Anglican ndipo wakavikiliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, ndiyo wakawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. James Beauttah nayo wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakuyana waka ndipo wakambiska mgwirizano pakati pa Ŵakuyu na Ŵaluo.

Pakati pa ma 1920, Wupu wa Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) ukapangika. Gulu ili likalongozgekanga na Joseph Kengethe na Jesse Kariuki. Johnstone Kenyatta wakaŵa mulembi na mulembi wa magazini ya Mugwithania (The unifier). KCA yikakhumbanga kuti Kikuyu wose ŵaŵe mu boma limoza, kweni pakaŵa mphindano chifukwa cha mitheto, kugaŵa malo, na kukanizga ŵanakazi kukotoleka. Ŵakalimbikiraso kuti Harry Thuku wafwatulike. Thuku wakati wafwatulika, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa KCA. Boma likakanizga KCA Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamba apo Jesse Kariuki wakayaniska kusamuska ŵanthu ŵa Kikuyus awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na malo gha ŵazungu na ndyali za Nazi za kusamuska ŵanthu.

Mu nyengo iyo kukaŵa nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachitanga ndyali, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo ku Kenya ndiwo ŵakachitanga chomene ndyali. Kuumaliro wa m'ma 1930, boma likamba kunjilirapo pa ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa kwizira mu malonda, kulongozga masambiro, na kusintha malo. Ŵalongozgi ŵavisopa ŵakaŵavya ntchito, ndipo ŵanalume ŵachoko ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuyowoyeskana. Boma la Kenya likati lachichizga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasinthe vinthu mu m'ma 1930 m'paka mu 1950, vikawovwira kuti magulu gha ndyali ghaŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerananga nawo.

Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa cha mapiri. Kuzakafika m'ma 1930, ŵanthu 15,000 awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali.

Kuyimilira

Wonaniso: Happy Valley set

Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kukhala mu Kenya. Usange ŵakaŵa na ndalama zakukwana mapaundi 1,000, ŵakasanganga malo ghambura kulipira ghakukwana maekala 1,000 (4 km2). Ŵakazenga minda ya khofi, iyo yikakhumbikwiranga makina ghakudura, ŵantchito ŵakukhazikika, na vilimika vinayi kuti ŵambe kulima. Nangauli ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaleka kuŵa na wanangwa wa kwendera malango gha boma na kukhomeska misonkho ku Britain, kweni ŵakatondeka. Cifukwa ca kusankhana mitundu mu ndyali ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusamira ku vyaru vinyake, ŵazungu ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵacoko. Ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku caru ici ŵakati ŵaŵa na wanangwa.

Nkhongono zikalutilira kuŵa mu mawoko gha kazembe; ndipo mu 1906, pakaŵaso wupu wakulongozga na wakwimika malango. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakazomerezgeka kusankha ŵimiliri mu wupu wakulongozga mu 1920, apo malo agha ghakakhazikiskikanga. Ŵazungu 30,000 awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, ŵakakhumbanga kuti paŵe boma ilo lingaŵawovwira. Iwo ŵakasuskanga ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India ŵakakhumbanga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵavya malo ghakukhalako, kweni ŵakakhalanga waka mu Nyumba ya Malango ya Ŵaindiya na Ŵaarabu. Boma likimika munthu munyake wa ku Europe kuti waŵe mwimiliri wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Mu "Devonshire declaration" ya 1923, ofesi ya Colonial Office yikati vilato vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa (awo ŵalipo 95 peresenti ya ŵanthu) vikwenera kuŵa pakwamba. Charles Mowat, wakulemba mdauko, wakalongosora masuzgo agha:

[The Colonial Office in London ruled that] native interests should come first; but this proved difficult to apply [in Kenya] ... where some 10,000 white settlers, many of them ex-officers of the war, insisted that their interests came before those of the three million natives and 23,000 Indians in the colony, and demanded 'responsible government', provided that they alone bore the responsibility. After three years of bitter dispute, provoked not by the natives but by the Indians, vigorously backed by the Government of India, the Colonial Office gave judgment: the interest of the natives was 'paramount', and responsible government out of the question, but no drastic change was contemplated – thus in effect preserving the ascendancy of the settlers.

Second World War

Nkhani ikulu: Kenya in World War II

In the Second World War (1939–45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called "askaris". The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King's African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.

Rural trends

British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang'a District 1920–1945. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and "betterment" of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state's agrarian reforms.

Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.

As Kenya modernized after the war, the role of the British religious missions changed their roles, despite the efforts of the leadership of the Church Missionary Society to maintain the traditional religious focus. However the social and educational needs were increasingly obvious, and the threat of the Mau Mau uprisings pushed the missions to emphasize medical, humanitarian and especially educational programs. Fundraising efforts in Britain increasingly stressed the non-religious components. Furthermore, the imminent transfer of control to the local population became a high priority.

Kenya African Union

Nkhani ikulu: Kenya African Union

As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya's first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the government, it was replaced by the Kikuyu Central Association in 1924.

In 1944 Thuku founded and was the first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an African nationalist organization that demanded access to white-owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group. However, the leadership of KAU was multitribal. Wycliff Awori was the first vice president followed by Tom Mbotela. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans. In an effort to gain nationwide support of KAU, Jomo Kenyatta visited Kisumu in 1952. His effort to build up support for KAU in Nyanza inspired Oginga Odinga, the Ker (chief) of the Luo Union (an organisation that represented members of the Luo community in East Africa) to join KAU and delve into politics.

In response to the rising pressures, the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 Africans and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.

Mau-Mau Uprising

Nkhani ikulu: Mau Mau Uprising

Wonaniso: Dedan Kimathi and Forty Group

A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the Mau Mau Uprising, an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers. It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa. Members of the forty group, World War II(WW2) veterans, including Stanley Mathenge, Bildad Kaggia and Fred Kubai became core leaders in the rebellion. Their experiences during the WW2 awakened their political consciousness, giving them determination and confidence to change the system. Key leaders of KAU known as the Kapenguria six were arrested on the 21st of October. They include Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kungu Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai and Achieng Oneko. Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961.

An intense propaganda campaign by the colonial government effectively discouraged other Kenyan communities, settlers and the international community from sympathising with the movement by emphasising on real and perceived acts of barbarism perpetrated by the Mau Mau. Although a much smaller number of Europeans died compared to Africans during the uprising, each individual European loss of life was publicised in disturbing detail, emphasising elements of betrayal and bestiality. As a result, the protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, "To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau." That said, other Kenyans directly or indirectly supported the movement. Notably, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent, facilitated the provision of firearms to forest fighters. He was arrested in 1954 and detained until 1959. Another notable example was the pioneering lawyer Argwings Kodhek, the first East African to obtain a law degree. He became known as the Mau Mau lawyer as he would successfully defend Africans accused of Mau Mau crimes pro bono. 12,000 militants were killed during the suppression of the rebellion, and the British colonial authorities also implemented policies involving the incarceration of over 150,000 suspected Mau Mau members and sympathizers (mostly from the Kikuyu people) into concentration camps. In these camps, the colonial authorities also used various forms of torture to attempt information from the detainees. In 2011, after decades of waiting, thousands of secret documents from the British Foreign Office were declassified. They show that the Mau Mau rebels were systematically tortured and subjected to the most brutal practices, men were castrated and sand introduced into their anus, women were raped after introducing boiling water into their vaginas. The Foreign Office archives also reveal that this was not the initiative of soldiers or colonial administrators but a policy orchestrated from London.

The Mau Mau uprising set in play a series of events that expedited the road to Kenya's Independence. A Royal Commission on Land and Population condemned the reservation of land on a racial basis. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union. The East African Salaries Commission put forth a recommendation – 'equal pay for equal work' – that was immediately accepted. Racist policies in public places and hotels were eased. John David Drummond, 17th Earl of Perth and Minister of State for Colonial affairs stated: "The effort required to suppress Mau Mau destroyed any settlers illusions that they could go it alone; the British Government was not prepared for the shedding of [more] blood in order to preserve colonial rule."

Trade Unionism and the struggle for independence

Wonaniso: Makhan Singh (Kenyan trade unionist), Fred Kubai, Bildad Kaggia, and Tom Mboya

The pioneers of the trade union movement were Makhan Singh, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia. In 1935, Makhan Singh started the Labour trade union of Kenya. In the 1940s, Fred Kubai started the Transport and Allied Workers Union and Bildad Kaggia founded the Clerks and Commercial Workers Union. In 1949, Makhan Singh and Fred Kubai started the East Africa Trade Union Congress. They organised strikes including the railway workers strike in 1939 and the protest against granting of a Royal Charter to Nairobi in 1950. These pioneering trade union leaders were imprisoned during the crackdown on Mau Mau. Following this crackdown, all national African political activity was banned. This ban was in place even when the first African members of the legislative council (MLCs) were elected. To manage and control African political activity, the colonial government permitted district parties starting in 1955. This effectively prevented African unity by encouraging ethnic affiliation. Trade unions led by younger Africans filled the vacuum created by the crackdown as the only organisations that could mobilise the masses when political parties were banned.

The Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU) was started by Aggrey Minya in 1952 but was largely ineffective. Tom Mboya was one of the young leaders who stepped into the limelight. His intelligence, discipline, oratory and organisational skills set him apart. After the colonial government declared a state of emergency on account of Mau Mau, at age 22, Mboya became the Director of Information of KAU. After KAU was banned, Mboya used the KFRTU to represent African political issues as its Secretary General at 26 years of age. The KFRTU was backed by the western leaning International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). Tom Mboya then started the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) in place of KFRTU, which quickly became the most active political body in Kenya, representing all the trade unions. Mboya's successes in trade unionism earned him respect and admiration. Mboya established international connections, particularly with labour leaders in the United States of America through the ICFTU. He used these connections and his international renown to counter moves by the colonial government.

Several trade union leaders who were actively involved in the independence struggle through KFL would go on to join active politics becoming members of parliament and cabinet ministers. These include Arthur Aggrey Ochwada, Dennis Akumu, Clement Lubembe and Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo. The trade union movement would later become a major battlefront in the proxy cold war that would engulf Kenyan politics in the 1960s.

Constitutional Debates and the Path to Independence

Wonaniso: Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, Nairobi People's Convention Party, Lancaster House Conferences (Kenya), and The Kennedy Airlift

After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council (MLC) under a weighted franchise based on education. Mboya successfully stood for office in the first election for African MLCs in 1957, beating the previously nominated incumbent, Argwings Kodhek. Daniel Arap Moi was the only previously nominated African MLC who kept his seat. Oginga Odinga was also elected and shortly afterwards nominated as the first chairman of the African elected members. Mboya's party, the Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP), was inspired by Kwame Nkurumah's People's Convention Party. It became the most organised and effective political party in the country. The NPCP was used to effectively mobilise the masses in Nairobi in the struggle for greater African representation on the council. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of "one man, one vote." However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.

In June 1958, Oginga Odinga called for the release of Jomo Kenyatta. This call built momentum and was taken up by the NPCP. Agitation for African suffrage and self-rule picked up in pace. One major hindrance to self-rule was the lack of African human capital. Poor education, economic development and a lack of African technocrats were a real problem. This inspired Tom Mboya to begin a programme conceptualised by a close confidante Dr. Blasio Vincent Oriedo, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the programme anyway. The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the programme, hence its popular name – The Kennedy Airlift. This scholarship program trained some 70% of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai and Barack Obama's father, Barack Obama Sr.

At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the British settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan "Uhuru," or "Freedom," was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labour leader Tom Mboya. KANU was formed in May 1960 when the Kenya African Union (KAU) merged with the Kenya Independence Movement (KIM) and Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP). Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement. A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by Ronald Ngala and Masinde Muliro. In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October.

Independence

Wonaniso: Kenya Independence Movement, Kenya African National Union, and Kenya African Democratic Union

Mu 1962, boma la KANU-KADU likapangika, pamoza na Kenyatta na Ngala. Mu 1962, boma likakhazikiska wupu wakulongozga uwo uli na ŵanthu 117. Charu chikagaŵika mu vigaŵa 7, cilicose cikaŵa na wupu wake. Ndondomeko ya kuŵika mipando ya ŵanthu ŵambura kufumako ku Africa yikamara, ndipo mu Meyi 1963 ŵakacita mavoti. KADU yikamba kuwusa mipingo ya ku Rift Valley, Coast na Western. KANU yikasanga mazaza ghanandi mu Nyumba ya Malango na mu Nyumba za Malango, kweniso mu vigaŵa vya Central, Eastern na Nyanza. Pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Kenya chikaŵa na boma lakujiwusa na Jomo Kenyatta uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Ŵa Britain na KANU ŵakakolerana kuti mu Okutobala 1963 ŵasinthe dango ilo likakhozga boma lapakati. Charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa Disembala 12, 1963 ndipo likapharazgika kuŵa republic pa 12 December 1964 na Jomo Kenyatta nga mutu wa boma. Mu 1964, boma likasintha malango gha boma na kwambiska maboma ghanyake. Yimoza mwa maofesi gha boma ni Central Bank of Kenya iyo yikapangika mu 1966.

Boma la Britain likaguliska ŵanthu ŵatuŵa awo ŵakakhalanga mu Kenya ndipo ŵanandi ŵakafumamo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku India ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda mu misumba na matawuni ghanandi, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵagomezganga yayi. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵanthu 120,000 pa ŵanthu 176,000 ŵa ku India ŵakasunga pasipoti yawo yakale ya ku Britain m'malo mwa kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa Kenya.

Kenyatta tenure (1963–1978)

Wonaniso: Presidency of Jomo Kenyatta, Shifta War, Pio Gama Pinto, Kenya People's Union, and Kisumu massacre

1973 newsreel about Kenyatta's rule

Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country's wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta's support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands "stolen by the whites" – even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged, setting up long-term ethnic animosities.

The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964–66 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People's Union (KPU). It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice-president and Luo elder. KPU advocated a more "scientific" route to socialism—criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities—as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. On 25 February 1965, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent and freedom fighter who was detained during the colonial period was assassinated in what is recognised as Kenya's first political assassination. He was also Oginga Odinga's chief tactician and link to the eastern bloc. His death dealt a severe blow to the Oginga Odinga's organisational efforts.

The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. A security Act was passed in Parliament in July 1966 and granted the government powers to carry out detention without trial, which was used against KPU members. In a series of dawn raids in August 1966, several KPU party members were arrested and detained without trial. They included Ochola Mak'Anyengo (the secretary general of the Kenya Petroleum Oil Workers Union), Oluande Koduol (Oginga Odinga's private secretary) and Peter Ooko (the general secretary of the East African Common Services Civil Servants Union).

In June 1969, Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country the KPU was banned. The specific riots that led to the banning of the KPU resulted in the incident referred to as the Kisumu massacre. Kenya thereby became a one-party state under KANU.

Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-party rule allowed Mzee ("Old Man") Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, to claim he had achieved "political stability." Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya's very rapid population growth and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position held by Asians and Europeans in the country.

At Kenyatta's death (22 August 1978), Vice-president Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On 14 October, Moi formally became president after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state. On 1 August members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) – paramilitary wing of the police – and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.

Foreign policies

Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance. Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya's relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.

Moi regime (1978–2002)

Wonaniso: Presidency of Daniel Moi, 1982 Kenyan coup d'état attempt, and Wagalla massacre

Kenyatta wakafwa mu chaka cha 1978 ndipo wakimikika na Daniel Arap Moi (wakababika mu 1924, wakafwa mu 2020) uyo wakawusa nga ni President 1978-2002. Moi, wa fuko la Kalenjin, wakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza ndipo wakawusa mwauryarya. Kuzakafika mu 1986, Moi wakaŵa kuti waŵika mazaza ghake ghose ndiposo vyandulo vinandi mu mawoko gha Kalenjin na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵachoko waka.

Pa 1 Ogasiti, 1982, ŵasilikari ŵa pasi ŵa mu ndege, ŵakulongozgeka na Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka ndipo ŵakakhozgeka na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku yunivesite, ŵakayezga kupoka boma kuti ŵathereske Moi. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mwaluŵiro na ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na mulara wa ŵasilikari, Mahamoud Mohamed. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira boma, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakavu ŵa ku Kenya ku Nairobi ŵakawukira na kwiba mashopu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Asia. Robert Ouko, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa Luo mu nduna ya Moi, wakasankhika kuti wavumbure upusikizgi wa pa vigaŵa vyakuzirwa, kweni wakakomeka myezi yicoko waka pamanyuma pake. Mubali wa Moi uyo wakaŵa pafupi nayo chomene ndiyo wakakhwaskika na kukoma Ouko. Boma la Germany likamuchema kazembe wake kuti walongore kuti likususkana na "nkhaza" za boma ndipo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ndalama ku vyaru vinyake ŵakachichizga Moi kuti wazomerezge vyaru vinyake kuti viŵepo.

Pamanyuma pa kukoma ŵanthu ku Garissa mu 1980, ŵasilikari ŵa Kenya ŵakacita kukoma ŵanthu ku Wagalla mu 1984 kwimikana na ŵantu ŵanandi mu cigaŵa ca North Eastern. Mu 2011, khoti likadumura kuti pachitike kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivi.

Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi

President Daniel arap Moi in 1979

Mu Disembala 1991, pamanyuma pa kukakamizgika na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru na ŵa ku vyaru vinyake, nyumba ya malango yikalekeska dango lakuti pali cipani cimoza. Mu 1992, pakaŵa maungano gha vyaru vinandi.

Chipani cha Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) chikawoneka nga ni chipani chakususkana na KANU, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa KANU ŵakasintha chipani. Kweni gulu la FORD, ilo likalongozgekanga na Oginga Odinga (1911-1994), wa ku Luo, na Kenneth Matiba, wa ku Kikuyu, likagaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri. Mu mavoti ghakwamba mu chaka cha 1992, Moi wakatora mavoti 37%, Matiba wakatora 26%, Mwai Kibaki (wa Democratic Party) 19%, ndipo Odinga 18%. Mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, KANU yikapokera vithuzi 97 pa vithuzi 188. Mu 1993, boma la Moi likazomera kusintha vinthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma, nga umo Banki ya Caru Cose na International Monetary Fund vikayowoyera.

Pakutondeska ŵapharazgi kuti ŵaleke kupharazga pambere maungano gha 1992 ghandambe, kweniso pamanyuma pake, Moi wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti vyaru vinandi vikovwira kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa mafuko. Boma lake likagwiliskiranga nchito uheni uwo ukaŵapo pakati pa ŵanthu. Mu muwuso wa Moi, ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo waliyose wakaŵanga na ŵamazaza awo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari. Maboma gha mu vigaŵa ghakaŵavya mazaza, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakalondezganga waka boma, ilo likalongozgekanga na pulezidenti. Mu 1990-91, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likakhumbanga. Boma ili likathembanga Kalenjin ndipo likakhuŵilizga Ŵamaasai kuti ŵawukire Ŵakuyu. Ŵandyali ŵa boma ŵakasuskanga Ŵakikuyu kuti mbapusikizgi, ŵakaŵakanizganga kulembeska mavoti na kuŵachenjezga kuti ŵaŵapokenge katundu wawo. Mu 1993 na pamanyuma pake, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Kikuyu ŵakachimbizgika mu vikaya vyawo, ndipo kanandi ŵasilikari, ŵapolisi, na ŵalinda ŵa viŵeto ŵakaŵapo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka.

Mu Novembala 1997, apo boma likalutilira kufiska malango gha vyaru vinyake, vikaŵa makora kuti vipani viŵiri viŵepo. Pulezidenti Moi wakathereskeka pa chisankho cha mu Disembala 1997, ndipo chipani chake cha KANU chikasungapo chiŵelengero chikuru mu nyumba za malango.

Moi wakawusa mwa kupangiska ŵanthu kuti ŵatemwenge mitundu yinyake, kukanizga boma, na kusuzga awo ŵakususka boma. Wakagwiliskira nchito kukakika na kutambuzgika, kwiba ndarama za boma na kupoka caru na katundu munyake. Moi wakawovwiranga ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo, Luhya na Kikuyu, ndipo wakakana kuti ndiyo wakapangiska vivulupi ivi. Kwamba mu 1998, Moi wakambiska ndondomeko ya umo wangalondezgera mazaza gha pulezidenti kuti iyo na chipani chake ŵasange chandulo. Pakukumana na suzgo la kukolerana na mitundu yinandi, Moi wakasintha ivyo wakakhumbanga kuchita pa viphikiro vya mu 2002 kufuma pa mtundu kuya pa mphindano za pakati pa miwiro. Ndondomeko iyi yikatimbanizga, ndipo yikapangiska kuti chipani chake chitimbanizgike, ndipo mwanalume wa Kenyatta, uyo wakaŵa wakunjilirapo, wakatondeka pa mavoti gha mu Disembala 2002.

Recent history (2002 to present)

Wonani vinandi: Politics of Kenya

2002 elections

Mwai Kibaki and (the late) Mrs. Lucy Kibaki with US President George W. Bush and Mrs. Laura Bush at the White House during a state visit in 2003.

Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi's former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected president by a large majority.

On 27 December 2002, by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union's (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC.

Economic trends

Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from −1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May–November 2007 alone.

2007 elections and ethnic violence

Wonani vinandi: 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis

Orange Democratic Movement leader Prime Minister Omolo Odinga speaking with the Kenyan media.

Once regarded as the world's "most optimistic," Kibaki's regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki's National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945– ) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).

In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred by claims of rigging by both sides. It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50:50 before the rigging started.

"Majimboism" was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today "majimboism" is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands – corruption, aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province. Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like Nakuru. "We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism," wrote one of Kenya's leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.

The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963–1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.

Demographic trends

Wonani vinandi: Demographics of Kenya

Kenya demography (1961–2003)

Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about 40%, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government's active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.

Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta (2013-2022)

The 3rd President of Kenya Mwai Kibaki ruled since 2002 until 2013. After his tenure Kenya held its first general elections after the new constitution had been passed in 2010. Uhuru Kenyatta (son of the first president Jomo Kenyatta) won in a disputed election result, leading to a petition by the opposition leader, Raila Odinga. The supreme court upheld the election results and President Kenyatta began his term with William Ruto as the deputy president. Despite the outcome of this ruling, the Supreme Court and the head of the Supreme Court were seen as powerful institutions that could carry out their role of checking the powers of the president. In 2017, Uhuru Kenyatta won a second term in office in another disputed election. Following the defeat, Raila Odinga again petitioned the results in the Supreme Court, accusing the electoral commission of mismanagement of the elections and Uhuru Kenyatta and his party of rigging. The Supreme Court overturned the election results in what became a landmark ruling in Africa and one of the very few in the world in which the results of a presidential elections were annulled. This ruling solidified the position of the Supreme Court as an independent body. Consequently, Kenya had a second round of elections for the presidential position, in which Uhuru emerged the winner after Raila refused to participate, citing irregularities.

The historical handshake in March 2018 between president Uhuru Kenyatta and his long-time opponent Raila Odinga meant reconciliation followed by economic growth and increased stability.

Presidency of William Ruto (2022-)

In August 2022, Deputy President William Ruto narrowly won the presidential election. He took 50.5% of the vote. His main rival, Raila Odinga, got 48.8% of the vote. On 13 September 2022, William Ruto was sworn in as Kenya's fifth president.

See also

• Timeline of Kenya
• Leaders:
  • Colonial Heads of Kenya
  • Heads of Government of Kenya (12 December 1963 to 12 December 1964)
  • Heads of State of Kenya (12 December 1964 to today)
• Politics of Kenya
• History of cities in Kenya:
  • Mombasa history and timeline
  • Nairobi history and timeline
• History of Africa
• History of Uganda
• History of Tanzania
• List of human evolution fossils

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