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ŴaTumbuka

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Wonani vinandi: Chiyowoyelo cha ChiTumbuka
ŴaTumbuka
Total population
7 milion (2020 est.)
Languages
Tumbuka, Malawi Tonga language
Religion
Christianity, Tumbuka mythology
Related ethnic groups
Tonga people of Malawi
PersonmuTumbuka
PeopleŵaTumbuka
LanguageChitumbuka
CountryNkhamanga
Umo chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka chikambira ku Africa

Ŵatumbuka (panji, ŵaKamanga, Batumbuka na Matumbuka) ni fuko la Bantu ilo likusangika mu Malaŵi, Zambia na Tanzania.[1][2][3] Chiyowoyero cha chiTumbuka chili mu gulu la viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, ndipo chili kufuma ku chigaŵa icho chili pakati pa Mlonga wa Dwangwa kumwera, Mlonga wa North Rukuru kumpoto, Nyanja ya Malawi kumafumiro gha dazi, na Mlonga wa Luangwa. Ŵakusangika mu vidika kufupi na milonga, nyanja kweniso mu malo gha mapiri gha Nyika Plateau, uko kanandi ŵakuchemeka Henga nangauli ili ndilo zina la chigaŵa.[1][3]

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakumanyikwa na mafuko ghachoko waka agho ghali na mitheto yakupambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ni Henga, Phoka, na Kamanga.

Kuti tipulikiske makora, fuko la Tumbuka likaŵa limoza mwa mafuko ghachoko agho ghakafuma ku Luba mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of Congo. Ivi vikacitika pambere boma lindakhazikiskike, ndipo ŵakakhala mu caru ici kwa vilimika vinandi comene pamanyuma pakuti ŵafumako ku mafuko gha Bantu mu cigaŵa ca ku mpoto kwa Africa.

Fuko la Tumbuka na mafuko ghanyake ghachoko ghakachimbizgika mu Luba na fuko la Worrior ilo likamanyikwa na zina lakuti fuko la Kongolo.

Ŵanthu na viyowoyero

Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakuyowoya Chitumbuka ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Malawi, kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia, na Tanzania.[1][2]Buku la Ethnologue likuti mu 2000, ŵanthu 2,546,000 ŵakayowoyanga Chitumbuka.[4] Ndipouli, Ember et al. ŵakusachizga kuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya kumwera na vyapakati kwa Africa nga ni Tanzania cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakugwira nchito ku vyaru vinyake.[1]

Chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka, icho chikuchemekaso chiTumbuka,[5] chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, chikuyana na viyowoyero vinyake vinandi vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Chiyowoyero ichi chili mu gulu la viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, ndipo chili na viyowoyero vinandi.[1] Ŵanthu ŵa Tumbuka ŵakucemeka ŵaTumbuka ndipo yumoza wakucemeka "mutumbuka" kung'anamura yumoza wa fuko la Tumbuka.[6]Chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka chikukolerana chomene na chiyowoyero cha ku Tonga. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti pakwamba ŵanthu aŵa ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana.[7]

Pambere boma la Britain lindambe kulamulira charu cha Nyasaland, mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Northern Region of Malawi mukaŵa mafuko ghanandi. Ŵamishonale kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵakagaŵa viyowoyero ivi mu magulu ghachoko waka, ndipo ŵakasankha chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka kuŵa chiyowoyero icho ŵakasambizgiranga ŵanthu kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, viyowoyero vya Chigongoni na Chigongonde vikaŵa kuti vikumara.[8]

Mu 1968, chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka chikalekeka kuŵa chiyowoyero cha boma, ndipo masambiro na viyezgelero vikasinthika.[9] Ŵanyake awo ŵakasuskanga dango la kukanizga kuyowoya Chitumbuka ŵakakakika panji kutambuzgika, kweni Tchalitchi la Presbyterian la ku Central Africa na la Katolika likalutilira kupharazga na kulemba mabuku mu Chitumbuka ku Northern Region.[10]

Pamanyuma pakuti maboma gha vyaru vinandi ghaŵa na demokilase, mapulogiramu gha mu ciyowoyero ca Tumbuka ghakamba kuwoneskeka pa wayilesi ya caru cose mu 1994, kweni fundo ya mu 1996 yakuti ciyowoyero ca Tumbuka ciŵeso ciyowoyero cakusambizgira mu vyaka vinayi vyakwambilira vya masambiro ghakukakamizgika yikufiskika yayi.[11] Chimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikuchitika chifukwa cha kutondeka kuwezgerapo chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka kuŵa chiyowoyero cha kumpoto ni kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake mu chigaŵa ichi, chiyowoyero cha Tonga, cha Ngonde, na chiyowoyero cha Ngoni icho chikuyowoyeka viŵi yayi, sono ŵakupenja chiyowoyero chakuyana na chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka.[12]

Mbili

Mapu gha Britain gha mu 1906 ghakulongora umo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakusangikira mu Central Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵali kulembeka kuti Batumbuka ndipo ŵali pa mapu agha kufupi na chigaŵa cha German East Africa.

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakwenera kuti ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa cha pakati pa Luangwa Valley na Lake Malawi m'ma 1400. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa na magulu ghanandi, ndipo limoza mwa magulu agha likaŵa Henga.[13]Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵamalonda ŵakavwaranga nga Mbaarabu, nangauli ŵakafumanga ku Unyamwezi, uko sono ni Tanzania. Ŵakapangana na magulu gha Henga, ndipo mulongozgi wawo wakambiska ufumu wa Chikulamayembe uwo ukaŵa na mafumu ghachoko waka.[14]Ndipouli, mu ma 1830, ufumu wa Chikulamaybe ukamba kunangika ndipo cigaŵa ici cikaŵa mu suzgo la ndyali na nkhondo.[15]

Zovu zikuruzikuru zamu cigaŵa ici zikakopanga ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakalondezganga awo ŵakaguliskanga njovu.[16] Mu ma 1840, Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakanjira kumpoto kwa Malaŵi, pamoza na Jumbe Salim bin Abdallah[note 1] Wakakhazikiska malo gha malonda ku Nkhotakota kufupi na Nyanja ya Malawi. Jumbe Abdallah wakaguliskanga ŵazga kuti wakhorweske ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga pa minda ya zinandi ya ku Zanzibar na ku Middle East.[17][18][19] Muzga mwanalume wakacemekanga muzga panji kapolo, ndipo chituntulu wakang'anamuranga muzga mwanakazi muwukirano.[20]

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakasuzgika comene na makhumbiro agho ŵanthu ŵa kumpoto kwa Malaŵi ŵakaŵa nagho gha maryero gha zgovu kweniso malonda gha ŵazga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800.[21][22][23]

Chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga chomene njovu, ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵanyawo pa nkhani ya malonda. Gulu ili likamara mu 1855, apo ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ŵakufuma ku South Africa ŵakiza kuzakapenja ŵazga na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito zaulimi.[5][24]

Ŵangoni ŵa ku Mbelwa (ŵakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti M'mbelwa) ŵakaŵa mphukira ya Zwangendaba ̊s Ngoni, awo ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku South Africa pakati pa 1819 na 1822, ndipo paumaliro ŵakafika kumwera kwa Tanzania na kukhala kwenekura mpaka apo Zwangendaba wakafwira pakati pa ma 1840. Pamanyuma pa ivi, ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakagaŵikana mu magulu ghanandi, ndipo gulu limoza ilo likaŵa pasi pa mwana wake Mbelwa likakhazikika mu chigaŵa icho sono ni Mzimba kumpoto kwa Malawi mu 1855. Ŵangoni ŵa Mbelwa ŵakacitanga nawo vinthu nga ni ŵanthu awo ŵakathereskeka, ndipo ŵakaŵatoranga kuŵa ŵazga. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵaguliskanga ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Swahili yayi, kweni ŵakaŵasunganga nga mbazga panji ŵakaŵatumanga ku magulu gha Ŵangoni. Ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa Henga ŵakagaluka ndipo ŵakachimbilira kumpoto, ndipo ŵakafika mu chigaŵa cha Ngonde cha mu 1881.[25]

Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Swahili ŵakazenga malo ghanandi mu chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵa ku Henga ŵakakhalanga, ndipo apo kampani ya African Lakes Company yikakhazikiskanga msika ku Karonga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ngoni ŵakamba kutondeka kuŵawukira. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri agha ghakaŵa ghacilendo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngonde, ndipo ghakakayikiranga kuti gulu la Ngonde likukolerana nawo. Ŵa Swahili na ŵa Henga ŵakasangana na mphindano pakati pa ŵa Ngonde na ŵa African Lakes Company. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya Karonga pakati pawo.

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ŵakamba kuparanya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka. Ŵakafwa, ŵakaparanyika, ŵabali ŵawo ŵakafwa, malo agho ŵakakhalanga ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalimi ŵakasuzgika chomene.[22][26] Kweniso vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka na ŵa ku Ngoni ŵatorane.[3]

Mu 1858, David Livingstone wakalemba vya chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Malawi, ndipo wakazunurapo za wuzga wa Ŵatumbuka.[27] Ŵamishonale ŵakafika mu cigaŵa ici mu ma 1870.[5]

Mu 1895, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereska Mlozi uyo wakaguliskanga ŵazga ku Karonga, ndipo ivi vikamazga malonda gha ŵazga.[28] Nangauli mu 1891 boma la Britain likapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Northern Ngoni ndiwo ŵazamuŵa na mazaza pa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Malawi, kweni ŵakazomera waka muwuso wa Britain mu 1904. Mu 1907, mulongozgi munyake wa Chikulamayembe wakambaso kuwusa, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakambaso kusopa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka na Tonga ŵakakondwa chomene na masambiro agho ŵakaŵanga nagho awo ŵakendeskekanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Scotland. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka na ŵa ku Tonga ndiwo ŵakasuzgikanga chomene chifukwa cha kusuzgika na ŵazga kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Ngoni. Masukulu agha ghakaŵa na ŵana ŵanandi, kweniso ghakaŵa ghawemi chomene kuluska ghanyake agho ghakaŵa mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizgika na ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵakusambira chomene ŵa ku Africa, awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kusambizga, ya uteŵeti wa boma, panji ya malonda. Kweni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Yao awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera, awo ŵakaŵa na Ŵasilamu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kusambira Chikhristu, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chewa awo ŵakakhalanga pakati, awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghachoko waka, ŵakakhwaskika viŵi yayi na maghanoghano agha.[29]

Mu nyengo iyo vinthu vikendanga makora yayi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Nyasaland, ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kulima kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wawo.[3] Mu vyaka 30 vyakwambilira vya muwuso wa maboma agha, vyakurya vya malonda vikaŵa vinandi mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe kweniso mu vigaŵa vya kumwera na vyapakati vya charu ichi. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵambe kulima vyakurya vya malonda mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto, kweni ŵakakhuŵara chifukwa cha kusoŵa vyakurya vyakwenelera na ndalama zinandi zakwendeskera vinthu. Mu ma 1880, ŵanalume ŵa ku Tumbuka na Tonga ŵakamba kufumamo mu chigaŵa ichi kuti ŵakagwirenge nchito ya kunyamura katundu na kuzenga katundu mu chigaŵa cha Nyasaland. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Tumbuka awo ŵakasambizgika ku misasa ŵakaluta ku Southern Rhodesia na South Africa uko ŵakasanga ndalama zinandi kuluska izo ŵakasanganga mu charu cha Nyasaland. Nangauli boma likadandawuranga comene na unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakasamanga, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa caru ici, uko kukaŵavya nthowa zinyake. Boma la Ŵakoroni likafipanga mtima kuti vigaŵa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chitumbuka vyazgoka "Mumpoto Wakufwa" wa charu ichi, kweni likagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zichoko waka pakupanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa panji kukhozga vyakurya

Munthu munyake uyo wakugomezga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Chitumbuka ŵalije chitukuko wakuyowoya kuti suzgo ili likamba pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kupenja vinthu vyakukhumbikwa mu vyaru vinyake. Ivi vikasazgikira pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ŵakanjira mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ŵakulima viŵeto vinandi chomene, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti dongo lileke kuŵa liwemi. Kuyana na Vail, masuzgo gha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ghakakura comene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵakoloni m'paka mu 1939, cifukwa ŵanalume ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakakhalanga ku "North Dead" ya Nyasaland ŵakaŵa na mwaŵi wa kugwira nchito mu migodi, minda, na mabwana ghanyake gha ku Southern Rhodesia na South Africa.[30]

Vinthu vinandi ivyo Vail wakalemba vyakukhwaskana na kunangika kwa vinthu ku Northern Nyasaland vikukolerana na ivyo ŵamishonale ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakagomezganga kuti kulima kwa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni nkhukuparanya vinthu, nkhwananga, kweniso nkhwananga.[31][32] Ivyo wakayowoya vyakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakachichizgikanga kusanga ŵantchito na kugura katundu wa ku vyaru vinyake, vikulongora kuti vikaŵa vyakutalulira. Kufuma waka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakafwatukira, vinthu vikwenda makora yayi pa nkhani ya vyachuma, ndipo nkhongono zawo za ndyali ni zichoko chomene chifukwa cha mitundu yinandi iyo yili mu chigaŵa ichi.

Levi Mumba, Charles Chinula na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa mu mawupu agho pamasinda ghakazgoka chigaŵa cha Nyasaland African Congress, panji cha Congress yeneyiyi, ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiTumbuka awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto panji awo ŵakamalizga masambiro ghawo ku Blantyre Mission. Paumaliro, gulu ili likapangiska kuti Malawi wapokere wanangwa mu 1964.[3]

Mu 1963, pakunozgekera kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira pawekha, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chitumbuka ŵakamba kuŵa na maudindo ghanandi mu boma la Hastings Banda. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo boma likapokera wanangwa wake, mu 1964 Cabinet Crisis, ivyo ŵalaŵiliri aŵa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵacitenge mwaluŵiro, ivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa comene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizgika mu misioni, vikapangiska kuti ŵaleke nchito panji kufumiskika pa nchito. Pamanyuma pa ivi, Banda wakawuskapo ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana nawo na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoyanga ChiTumbuka pa maudindo ghawo ndipo wakaŵawuskapo na ŵanthu ŵa Chichewa ŵakufuma ku Central Region.

Ŵanthu, chisopa na mitheto

Ŵanakazi ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakuvina.

Pambere ufumu wa koloni yindakhazikike, ŵamishonale ŵa Chikhristu ŵakiza pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka. Thomas Cullen Young wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵamishonale ŵakwamba kulemba vya cithuzithuzi mu buku la Notes on the history of the Tumbuka-Kamanga peoples in the Northern Province of Nyasaland.[33]Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakucemeka Ŵakhristu, kweni ŵakulutilira na vigomezgo vyawo.

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵali na cisopa cawo. Mu Baibolo ili mukaŵa fundo yakuti Chiuta ndiyo wakalenga vinthu vyose ndipo wakwimira dazi. Cisambizgo ca cisopa ici capangiska kuti paŵe nkhani zinandi zautesi. Nga umo vikuŵira mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, Ŵatumbuka nawo ŵakusopa ŵasekuru ŵawo, ŵakutemwa mizimu, kuwuka, na vinyake. Ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakulwara na mizimu ndiposo kuti ŵakuchita vyamizimu. Ku malo agha, ŵanthu ŵakuchema sumu iyi kuti Vimbuza, ndipo yikusazgapo kuvina uko ŵanthu awo ŵali na mzimu uheni ŵakuvina.[34][35][36]

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakakhalanga ku mizi panji mu nyumba za mathabwa. Mu nyumba yiliyose mukaŵanga malo ghakusungiramo vyakurya na khichini. Ŵanalume ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha nyumba chakuchemeka Mpara ndipo ŵanakazi ŵakakhalanga mu Ntanganini. Nyengo ya kuvuna yikati yakwana, ŵanthu ŵakambininikanga, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba za matete kufupi na malo agho ŵakakulimamo.

Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakuthemba chomene vyakurya nga ni chimanga, mani, mphoza, na nyungu, pamoza na vipasi, mphangwe, na vipambi. Ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakutemwa kugwira nchito ku caru cinyake. Kale, ŵalimi ŵakalimanga na mawoko. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵasilikari, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito viŵiya vyakulimira. Citemene, panji kuti kulima kwa ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko, ni kaluso ka mazuŵa ghano ndipo kakulutilira pakati pa Ŵatumbuka.[1][37][38]

Vimbuza

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ŵakuvina sumu ya Vimbuza iyo yili pa malo ghakukumbukika na UNESCO.[39]

Vimbuza (pl. of Chimbuza) ni lizgu ilo likuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Malaŵi kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia. Vimbuza ni nthowa yinyake yakuchizgira matenda iyo yikumanyikwa kuti ngoma. Janzen na ŵanyake, kweniso Victor Turner mu mabuku ghake ghakukhwaskana na viŵiya vya Ndembu.[40]

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakugomezga kuti mizimu iyi yikupangiska matenda, ndipo James Peoples na Garrick Bailey ŵakuti mizimu iyi yikuyana waka na mizimu iyo yikuzunulika mu mabuku gha ku Europe. Vimbuza yikupangiska kuti thupi la munthu lileke kuŵa na nkhongono zakuzizima na zakuzizima, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Tumbuka ŵakutemwa kuvina na kwimba sumu.[41][42].Mu 2008, wupu wa UNESCO ukalemba vya kuvina kwa Vimbuza kuŵa chiharo cha ŵanthu. Vyakuyimbira ivyo vikwendera lumoza na Vimbuza vikusazgapo ngoma panji viŵiya vya chitima. Munthu uyo wakuchizga wakuwona kuti mulwari wali na mizimu, ndipo wakuchita nayo viphikiro vya kuvina kwa masabata ghanandi panji myezi. Ŵanalume nawo ŵakwimba maseŵero agha. Wupu wa UNESCO ukuti Vimbuza ni "malo agho ŵalwari ŵakwimbira nthenda yawo."[39][43]

Vimbuza ni nthowa yakuchizgira nthenda za mu maghanoghano na kufumiska viŵanda. Mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵakucichema kuti mkhalachitatu Vimbuza. Mkhalachitatu Vimbuza ni zina linyake la kuvina kwa Vimbuza uko ŵakucita nga ni kaluso ka kufumiska viŵanda para munthu wali na viŵanda panji mizimu yiheni.

Ŵakuchita maseŵero agha ku Rumphi, kweni sono ŵakusangikaso ku Mzimba, Karonga, Kasungu na vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakwimba sumu iyi ku Nkhata Bay uko yikuchemeka masyabi.

Mwambo Wachikhalidwe wa Zengani

Zengani ni mwambo wakumanyikwa comene ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia.

Zengani Traditional Ceremony ni chiphikiro cha chaka na chaka icho chikuchitikira ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiTumbuka mu chigaŵa cha Lundazi, Chasefu na Lumezi mu chigaŵa cha Eastern Province of Zambia, kanandi mu Okutobala. Zina lakuti Zengani likung'anamura kukolerana kwa mafuko ghaŵiri gha ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Ngoni na Tumbuka. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakulindizga kuti ŵazakayimbenge maseŵero ghakupambanapambana nga ni ingoma, vimbuza, muganda, na chiwoda. Ŵalongozgi ŵa mitheto nga ni ŵakaronga ndiwo ŵakuŵapo pa viphikiro ivi.[44]



Wonaniso

Ŵanthu Ŵakumanyikwa Ŵakutumbuka

See main article:List of Tumbukas

Vyakulemba

  1. ↑ Jumbe means "chief, boss" in the regional language.

Maukaboni

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Carol Ember; et al. (2002). Encyclopedia of World Cultures: Supplement 1st Edition. Macmillan. pp. 354–358. ISBN 978-0028656717.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 501. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Tumbuka people, Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. ↑ Ethnologue report for Tumbuka language, Ethnologue
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 James B. Minahan (2016). Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World, 2nd Edition. ABC-CLIO. pp. 430–431. ISBN 978-1-61069-954-9., Quote: "(...) raids on Tumbuka villages devastated the region as the demand for slaves by Zanzibar Arab traders increased in the early 1800s."
  6. ↑ AD Easterbrook (1911). Journal of the African Society. MacMillan. p. 331.
  7. ↑ Gregory Kamwendo (2002). Ethnic Revival and Language Associations in the New Malawi in Harri Lundgren (editor) A Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. pp. 143–4. ISBN 978-9-17106-499-8.
  8. ↑ Leroy Vail and Landeg White (1989). Tribalism in the Political History of Malawi in Leroy Vail (editor) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. James Currey Ltd. pp. 152–4, 178. ISBN 0-520-07420-3.
  9. ↑ Leroy Vail and Landeg White (1989). Tribalism in the Political History of Malawi in Leroy Vail (editor) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. James Currey Ltd. pp. 189–91. ISBN 0-520-07420-3.
  10. ↑ Gregory Kamwendo (2002). Ethnic Revival and Language Associations in the New Malawi in Harri Lundgren (editor) A Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. pp. 140–2. ISBN 978-9-17106-499-8.
  11. ↑ Gregory Kamwendo (2002). Ethnic Revival and Language Associations in the New Malawi in Harri Lundgren (editor) A Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. pp. 146–7. ISBN 978-9-17106-499-8.
  12. ↑ Gregory Kamwendo (2002). Ethnic Revival and Language Associations in the New Malawi in Harri Lundgren (editor) A Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. pp. 147–8. ISBN 978-9-17106-499-8.
  13. ↑ M Douglas (1950). Peoples of the Lake Nyasa Region: East Central Africa, Part 1. International African Institute. pp. 52–3.
  14. ↑ Shadreck Billy Chirembo (1993). "Colonialism and the Remaking of the Chikulamayembe Dynasty 19041953". The Society of Malawi Journal. Society of Malawi – Historical and Scientific. 46 (2): 1–24. JSTOR 29778687.
  15. ↑ J McCracken (2012). A History of Malawi, 1859–1966. James Currey Ltd. pp. 22, 26. ISBN 978-1-84701-050-6.
  16. ↑ Edward A. Alpers (1975). Ivory and Slaves: Changing Pattern of International Trade in East Central Africa to the Later Nineteenth Century. University of California Press. pp. 161–165. ISBN 978-0-520-02689-6.
  17. ↑ Malawi Slave Routes and Dr. David Livingstone Trail, UNESCO (2011), Quote: "Slave trade was introduced in Malawi by the Swahili-Arab traders in the 19th century following a great demand for ivory and slave in the East African markets namely Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mombasa and Quelimane. The Swahilis and Omani Arabs moved further into the interior of Africa including Malawi to obtain slaves and ivory. One of Slave Trade Route was Nkhotakota where one of the Swahili-Arab slave traders, Salim-bin Abdullah (Jumbe) set up his headquarters on the shore of Lake Malawi in the 1840s. From Nkhota kotawhere he organized his expeditions to obtain slaves and ship them across the lake to East African markets, Kilwa. About 20,000 slaves were annually shipped by Jumbe to Kilwa from Nkhotakota."
  18. ↑ Owen J. M. Kalinga (2012). Historical Dictionary of Malawi. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. xix, 4–5, 7–9. ISBN 978-0-8108-5961-6.
  19. ↑ Roberta Laurie (2015). Weaving a Malawi Sunrise: A Woman, A School, A People. University of Alberta Press. pp. 21–24. ISBN 978-1-77212-086-8.
  20. ↑ C. J. W. Fleming (1972), The Peculiar Institution Among The Early Tumbuka, The Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 25, No. 1 (January, 1972), page 5
  21. ↑ Bethwell A. Ogot; Unesco (1992). Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. UNESCO. pp. 634–639. ISBN 978-92-3-101711-7.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 David Anderson; Richard H. Grove (1989). Conservation in Africa: Peoples, Policies and Practice. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-521-34990-1.
  23. ↑ Assa Okoth (2006). A History of Africa: African societies and the establishment of colonial rule, 1800–1915. East African Publishers. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-9966-25-357-6.
  24. ↑ Bethwell A. Ogot; Unesco (1992). Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. UNESCO. pp. 634–635, 638–639. ISBN 978-92-3-101711-7.
  25. ↑ T. J. Thompson (1995). Christianity in Northern Malaŵi: Donald Fraser's Missionary Methods and Ngoni Culture. Brill. pp. 26–7. ISBN 978-9-00410-208-8.
  26. ↑ Assa Okoth (2006). A History of Africa: African societies and the establishment of colonial rule, 1800–1915. East African Publishers. pp. 60–65. ISBN 978-9966-25-357-6.
  27. ↑ C. J. W. Fleming (1972), The Peculiar Institution Among The Early Tumbuka, The Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 25, No. 1 (January, 1972), pages 5–10; Quote: "Arab traders began penetrating deeper and deeper into Central Africa, slaves became a common article of commerce and slavery took on the many cruel and degrading aspects which Livingstone encountered in these regions during the course of his explorations. Minor wars were carried on for the sole purpose of capturing slaves and they were freely traded, not only with the Arabs but among the inhabitants themselves."
  28. ↑ "Karonga War".
  29. ↑ Leroy Vail and Landeg White (1989). Tribalism in the Political History of Malawi in Leroy Vail (editor) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. James Currey Ltd. pp. 154–5, 178. ISBN 0-520-07420-3.
  30. ↑ Leroy Vail (1981). The Making of the "Dead North": A Study of the Ngoni Rule in Northern Malawi, c. 1855-1907', in J.B. Peires (ed.), Before and After Shaka: Papers in Nguni History. Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University. pp. 247–8.
  31. ↑ M Douglas (1950). Peoples of the Lake Nyasa Region: East Central Africa, Part 1. International African Institute. p. 58.
  32. ↑ T. J. Thompson (1995). Christianity in Northern Malaŵi: Donald Fraser's Missionary Methods and Ngoni Culture. Brill. pp. 22–3. ISBN 978-9-00410-208-8.
  33. ↑ Jack Thomson (2007). Ngoni, Xhosa and Scot: Religious and Cultural Interaction in Malawi. African Books Collective. pp. 151–152, 82, 141–144. ISBN 978-99908-87-15-0.
  34. ↑ Silas S. Ncozana (2002). The Spirit Dimension in African Christianity: A Pastoral Study Among the Tumbuka People of Northern Malawi. Christian Literature Association in Malawi (CLAIM). pp. 10, 102–111. ISBN 978-99908-16-14-3.
  35. ↑ Michael Dylan Foster; Lisa Gilman (2015). UNESCO on the Ground: Local Perspectives on Intangible Cultural Heritage. Indiana University Press. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-253-01953-0.
  36. ↑ Rhodian G. Munyenyembe (2011). Christianity and Socio-cultural Issues: The Charismatic Movement and Contextualization of the Gospel in Malawi. African Books Collective. pp. 86 with footnote 201. ISBN 978-99908-87-52-5.
  37. ↑ William Allan (1965). The African Husbandman. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-3-8258-3087-8.
  38. ↑ C. Gregory Knight (2015). Ecology and Change: Rural Modernization in an African Community. Elsevier. pp. 161–163. ISBN 978-1-4832-6717-3.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Vimbuza healing dance, UNESCO, Malawi, Inscribed in 2008 (3.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (originally proclaimed in 2005)
  40. ↑ Victor Turner (1981). The Drums of Affliction: A Study of Religious Processes Among the Ndembu of Zambia. International African Institute. ISBN 9780091437213.
  41. ↑ James Peoples; Garrick Bailey (2014). Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. Cengage. p. 355. ISBN 978-1-285-73337-1.
  42. ↑ Steven M. Friedson (1996). Dancing Prophets: Musical Experience in Tumbuka Healing. University of Chicago Press. pp. 12–15, 19–21, 30–34, 64–69. ISBN 978-0-226-26502-5.
  43. ↑ Steven M. Friedson (1996). Dancing Prophets: Musical Experience in Tumbuka Healing. University of Chicago Press. pp. 13–15, 38–39, 122–143. ISBN 978-0-226-26502-5.
  44. ↑ "Zengani Traditional Ceremony". Music In Africa (in English). 2016-06-14. Retrieved 2023-02-08.

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