Socrates

Nkhani iyi njakukhwaskana na the classical Greek philosopher. For other uses of Socrates, see Socrates (disambiguation). For the Attic orator, see Isocrates.

Socrates
A marble head of Socrates in the Louvre (copy of bronze head by Lysippus)
Kubabika	c. 470 BC Deme Alopece, Athens
Kufwa	399 BC (aged approximately 71) Athens
Chaku fwila	Execution by Forced suicide by poisoning
Mbumba(s)	Xanthippe, Myrto
Ŵana	Lamprocles, Menexenus, Sophroniscus
Banja	Sophroniscus (father), Phaenarete (mother), Patrocles (half-brother)
Era	Ancient Greek philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Classical Greek philosophy
Notable students	Plato Xenophon Antisthenes Aristippus Alcibiades Critias
Main interests	Epistemology, ethics, teleology
Notable ideas	Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning "The unexamined life is not worth living"
Influences Prodicus, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Diotima, Damon, Parmenides
Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially his followers, e.g., Plato, Xenophon, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo of Elis

Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Σωκράτης; c. 470–399 BC) wakaŵa wavinjeru wa ku Greece wa ku Ateni uyo wakucemeka wakwamba wa vinjeru vya ku Western ndipo wakaŵa yumoza wa vinjeru vyakwambilira vya makhaliro. Socrates wakaŵa munthu wambura kupulikikwa, wakalembapo yayi mabuku ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumumanya chifukwa cha ivyo wakalemba pamanyuma pakuti wafwa. Nkhani izi zikalembeka nga ni nkhani za kudumbiskana, ndipo Socrates na awo ŵakadumbiskananga nawo ŵakadumbiskana nkhani mu nthowa ya mafumbo na mazgoro. Nkhani za Socrates izo zikususkana zikupangiska kuti visambizgo vyake vileke kuwoneka makora. Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene mu Ateni. Mu 399 B.C.E., ŵakamupa mulandu wa kuleka kusopa Ciuta na kunanga ŵawukirano. Ŵakati ŵamuzenga mulandu kwa zuŵa limoza, ŵakamuphalira kuti wakomeke. Zuŵa laumaliro la umoyo wake mu jele, wakakana wovwiri uwo ŵanthu ŵakamupa.

Ivyo Plato wakalemba ni vinyake mwa mabuku agho ghakulongosora vya Socrates. Iwo ŵakulongora umo Socrates wakawoneranga vinjeru vya ŵanthu, kusazgapo vinjeru vya ŵanthu na nkharo. Socrates wa ku Platoni wakapeleka zina lake ku fundo ya nthowa ya Socrates, kweniso ku fundo ya Socratic irony. Nthowa ya Socrate ya kufumba, panji elenchus, yikupangika na mafumbo ghafupi na mazgoro, agho ghakulongosoreka mu malemba gha Platon apo Socrates na awo ŵakayowoyanga nayo ŵakuwona fundo zakupambanapambana za nkhani panji ng'anamuro lake. Socrates wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca kuyowoya kuti walije mahara; wakatemwanga kuyowoya kuti ico wakamanya nchakuti walije mahara.

Socrates wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵavinjeru mu nyengo yakale ndipo wachali kovwira ŵanthu mazuŵa ghano. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Middle Ages na ŵa chisopa cha Ciisilamu ndiwo ŵakasambiranga vya iyo, ndipo wakawovwira comene pa nyengo ya kuwuka kwa ŵanthu ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kumutemwa, nga umo vikaŵira na Søren Kierkegaard na Friedrich Nietzsche. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita pakulongosora vya Socrates mu luso, mabuku, na visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵanandi, vyapangiska kuti waŵe munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western.

Uko kukafuma Baibolo na Suzgo ya Socrates

Socrates wakalembapo yayi ivyo wakasambizganga. Vinthu vyose ivyo tikumanya vyakukhwaskana na Socrates vikufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Plato, munthu wavinjeru, na Xenophon, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wake. Nkhani izo zikuyowoyeka mu mabuku ghakale agha zikususkana, ndipo zikupangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵaleke kumanya makora maghanoghano gha Socrates. Mu mabuku gha Plato, Xenophon, na ŵanyake awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito munthu uyo Socrates wakaŵa, ŵakulemba nkhani izo zikulongosora umoyo na maghanoghano gha Socrates. Lizgu lakuti Socratic dialogues (logos sokratikos) likafuma kwa Aristotle. Nangauli tikumanya yayi nyengo yeneco apo vikalembekera, kweni vinyake vikwenera kuti vikalembeka Socrates wati wafwa. Nga ni umo Aristotle wakayowoyera pakwamba, nkhani izo zikuyowoya vya Socrates ni zakukwesana.

Plato na Xenophon

Xenophon wakaŵa munthu wakugomezgeka, ndipo wakaŵa wavinjeru yayi. Iyo wakatondeka kulongosora makora fundo za Socrates. Wakamutemwanga comene Socrates cifukwa ca mahara ghake, kutemwa caru cake, na cikanga ico wakaŵa naco pa nkhondo. Wakalongosora vya Socrates mu mabuku ghanayi: Memorabilia, Oeconomicus, Symposium, na Apology of Socrates. Wakayowoyaso nkhani ya Socrates mu buku lake la Anabasis. Mu buku la Oeconomicus muli nkhani iyo yikulongosora nkhani zaulimi. Nga ni buku la Plato lakuti Apology, buku la Xenophon lakuti Apologia likulongosora ivyo vikachitikira Socrates. K. Wakayama C. Kuŵa wakukondwa. Guthrie, Xenophon wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakaŵa "munthu wakujikuzga ndiposo wakujithemba". Nkhani iyi yikulongosora umo Socrates wakadumbirananga na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Ateni pa nyengo iyo ŵakadumbiskananga. Mu buku lake la Memorabilia, wakuvikilira Socrates ku ŵanthu awo ŵakumupa mulandu wa kunanga ŵawukirano na kwimikana na ŵachiuta.

Ivyo Plato wakayowoya vya Socrates ni vyakupulikikwa yayi. Plato wakaŵa msambiri wa Socrates ndipo wakakhala vyaka vinandi kuluska Socrates. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana chomene na umo Plato wakalongosolera mikhaliro ya Socrates. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakukolerana nayo yayi fundo yakuti iyo wakalongosoranga waka maghanoghano gha Socrates. Cinthu cimoza ico cikupangiska ŵanthu kukayika nchakuti munthu uyo Socrates wakuyowoya wakukolerana yayi. Fundo yimoza iyo yikulongosora kuti vinthu vikupambana ni iyi: Pakwamba, Plato wakayezga kulongosora makora mbiri ya Socrates, kweni pamasinda mu mabuku ghake wakakondwa kuŵikamo maghanoghano ghake mu mazgu gha Socrates. Pa fundo iyi, pali mphambano pakati pa Socrates uyo wakuzunulika mu mabuku ghakwambilira gha Plato na Socrates uyo wakuzunulika mu mabuku ghaumaliro gha Plato.

Nkhani za Xenophon na Plato zikupambana pa nkhani ya Socrates. Buku la Socrates la Xenophon ndakuzizika comene kuluska la Plato. Socrates wa Xenophon nayo walije vinjeru vya Plato vya Socrates, nthowa ya Socrates panji elenchus, ndipo wakughanaghana kuti enkrateia (kujikora) nkhwakuzirwa chomene, kweni ndimo viliri yayi na Socrates wa Plato. Kanandi waka, mabuku gha Sokratiko ghangatovwira yayi kuti tisange munthu wakuchemeka Socrates, nanga ni para nkhani zake zikukolerana.

Aristophanes na mabuku ghanyake

Awo ŵakalembanga nkhani zakukondweska za ku Ateni, nga ni Aristophanes, nawo ŵakayowoyapo vya Socrates. Vyakusekeska vyakuzirwa comene vya Aristophanes vyakukhwaskana na Socrates ni The Clouds, umo Socrates wali nga ni munthu wakuzirwa comene. Mu seŵero ili, Aristophanes wakulongora Socrates nga ni munthu wambura kugomezga Chiuta. Socrates in Clouds wakutemwa chomene vinjeru vya chilengiwa, ivyo vikukolerana na ivyo Plato wakayowoya mu buku lake lakuti Phaedo. Cakuwonekerathu nchakuti apo wakaŵa na vilimika 45, Socrates wakaŵa kuti wakopa kale Ŵaateni pakuŵa wavinjeru. Tikumanya makora yayi usange ntchito ya Aristophanes njakovwira pakulongosora vya Socrates.

Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalemba vya Socrates ŵakaŵa Aeschines wa ku Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid wa ku Megara, Phaedo, na Aristotle. Aristotle wakaŵako mu nyengo ya Socrates yayi, kweni wakasambira kwa Plato vyaka 20. Aristotle wakuwona kuti Socrates wali nga ni Xenophon na Plato, awo ŵakaŵa paubwezi na Socrates. Aristotle wakamanyanga makora nkhani zakupambanapambana za Socrates. Iyo wakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Socrates. Iyo wakulemba vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Socrates, ndipo para walemba, wakuŵika mtima comene pa nkhani za Plato. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakukayikira kuti wakalemba vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ndipouli, ivyo wakayowoya ni vyakuzirwa comene kuti tipulikiske Socrates.

Suzgo la Socrates

Nkhani ikulu: Socratic problem

Mu buku la mutu wakuti "The Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher" (1818), Friedrich Schleiermacher wakasuska ivyo Xenophon wakayowoya. Schleiermacher wakasuska Xenophon cifukwa ca kulongora makora yayi nkhani ya Socrates. Schleiermacher wakati Xenophon wakaŵa msilikari, ntheura wakaŵa wakwenelera yayi kuyowoya maghanoghano gha Socrates. Kweniso, Xenophon wakaŵa na sankho pakuyowoya vya mubwezi wake na msambizgi wake wakale: wakagomezganga kuti Socrates wakachitirika vinthu mwambura urunji na Athene, ndipo wakayezga kulongora maghanoghano ghake m'malo mwa kuyowoya mwambura kutemwera. Schleiermacher wakati, ici cikapangiska kuti Xenophon walongore kuti Socrates wakaŵa wavinjeru yayi. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakana ivyo Xenophon wakayowoya.

Mufilosofi Karl Joel, uyo wakalongosora umo Aristotle wakalongosolera mazgu ghakuti logos sokratikos, wakati nkhani za Socrates ni zautesi. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru nga ni Olof Gigon na Eugène Dupréel, awo ŵakagomezganga fundo za Joel, ŵakayowoya kuti para ŵakusambira vya Socrates ŵakwenera kuŵika mtima pa umo wakuwonera vinthu kweniso vigomezgo vyake m'malo mwa kughanaghanira vya Socrates. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Gregory Vlastos, uyo wakasambira vinjeru vya ŵanthu, wakayowoya kuti ivyo Plato wakayowoya vikukolerana chomene na ivyo ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani ya Socrates. Vlastos wakapulikira yayi ivyo Xenophon wakayowoya, kweni wakazomerezganga ivyo Plato wakayowoya. Sonosono apa, Charles H. Kahn wakukhozga maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa nkhani ya Socrates, ndipo wakulongora kuti buku la Plato lakuti Apology ndilo lili na ng'anamuro linyake.

Umoyo wake

Nkhondo ya ku Potidaea (432 B.C.E.): Ŵaateni na Ŵakorinte (vinthu vinyake). Socrates (pakati) wakuponoska Alcibiades. Kuyana na Plato, Socrates wakacitako Nkhondo ya ku Potidaea, Nkhondo ya ku Delium na Nkhondo ya ku Amphipolis (422 B.C.E.).

Socrates wakababika mu 470 panji 469 B.C.E. ku Sophroniscus na Phaenarete, awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kuzenga malibwe na kuzengera, mu msumba wa Alopece ku Ateni. Ntheura wakaŵa mwenekaya wa ku Ateni. Wakakhalanga kufupi na ŵabali ŵa awiske, ndipo nga umo vikaŵira nyengo zose, wakapokeranga chiharo cha awiske. Wakasambira malango na mitheto ya ku Ateni. Wakasambira kuŵazga na kulemba, ndipo nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasambazi ŵa ku Ateni, nayo wakasambirako masambiro ghanyake nga ni maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi, sumu, na sumu. Wakatorana kaŵiri (pakaŵa kuti palije uyo wakamanya uyo wakaŵa wakwamba): wakatorana na Xanthippe apo Socrates wakaŵa na vyaka vya m'ma 50, ndipo munyake wakatorana na mwana wa Aristides, uyo wakaŵa wa ku Ateni. Wakaŵa na ŵana ŵanalume ŵatatu na Xanthippe. Socrates wakacitako usilikari pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Peloponnesus, ndipo wakaluta ku nkhondo zitatu.

Cinthu cinyake ico cikulongora kuti Socrates wakazirwiskanga dango nchakuti Leon wa ku Salaminia wakakakika. Nga ni umo Plato wakayowoyera mu buku lake la Apology, Socrates na ŵanyake ŵanayi ŵakacemeka ku Tholos ndipo ŵakaphalirika na ŵimiliri ŵa Ŵachigaluka 30 (awo ŵakamba kuwusa mu 404 B.C.E.) kuti ŵakake Leon kuti ŵakomeke. Socrates ndiyo wakaleka kucitako maseŵero agha, ndipo wakasankha kuti ŵakaronga ŵamukwiyiske na kumulanga m'malo mwa kucita ivyo iyo wakawonanga kuti ni ubudi.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni, comenecomene ŵawukirano, ŵakamba kumutemwa comene Socrates. Wakaŵa wakuwoneka makora yayi, wakaŵa na mphuno yambura kujima, maso ghakurughakuru, na nthumbo yikuru. Ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakamuyowoyeranga msinjiro. Socrates wakazirwiskanga yayi vyakusanguluska vyakuthupi, kusazgapo kawonekero kake ndiposo vyakukhumbikwa vyake. Wakasuzgikanga na utozi, wakagezanga viŵi yayi, wakendanga waka malundi, ndipo wakaŵa na malaya ghamoza pera. Wakaryanga, kumwa, na kucita uzaghali mwakwenelera, nangauli wakaleka yayi. Nangauli Socrates wakakopeka na ŵawukirano, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu Greece wakale, kweni wakakananga kutemwa ŵawukirano cifukwa, nga ni umo Plato wakayowoyera, wakakhumbanga kuŵasambizga. Socrates wakakhumba yayi kugonana na ŵasambiri ŵake, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu na ŵana mu Ateni. Mu ndyali, wakathera yayi pa mphindano ya pakati pa ŵandyali na ŵamazaza ŵa ku Ateni. Nkharo ya Socrates iyo yili kulembeka mu buku la Apology, Crito, Phaedo, na Symposium yikukolerana na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakulongosora umo Plato wakawoneranga Socrates.

Socrates wakafwira ku Ateni mu 399 B.C.E. pamanyuma pa kweruzgika cifukwa ca kuleka kopa Ciuta na uheni wa ŵawukirano uwo ukamara zuŵa limoza pera. Zuŵa laumaliro la umoyo wake mu jere, wakaŵa pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵake na ŵalondezgi ŵake awo ŵakamuphalira kuti wafumemo mu jele, kweni wakakana. Wakafwa mulenji wakulondezgapo, mwakuyana na cilango ico wakapika, wati wamwa poyizoni wa hemlock. Wakafumapo yayi ku Ateni, padera pa nkhondo izo wakacitako.

Kuyezgeka kwa Socrates

Nkhani ikulu: Trial of Socrates

Wonaniso: The unexamined life is not worth living

In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and for impiety. Socrates defended himself unsuccessfully. He was found guilty by a majority vote cast by a jury of Mu 399 B.C.E., Socrates wakeruzgika cifukwa ca kunanga maghanoghano gha ŵawukirano ŵa ku Ateni ndiposo cifukwa ca kuleka kopa Ciuta. Socrates wakajivikilira yayi. Wakapimika na mulandu na wupu wa ŵeruzgi uwo ukaŵa na ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵa ku Ateni, ndipo kuyana na kaluso, wakapeleka cilango cakuti boma limupenge cakurya na pakugona kwawanangwa cifukwa ca milimo iyo wakacitiranga msumba. M'malo mwake, wakaphalira munthu yura kuti wamulipire mina yimoza ya siliva. Khoti likakana ndipo likadumura kuti wakomeke. Ŵakaŵapa milandu iyi: (1) kunanga ŵawukirano; (2) kusopa ŵachiuta ŵatesi; na (3) kuleka kusopa cisopa ca boma.

Apo Socrates wakeruzgikanga, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi. Mu 404 B.C.E., Ŵaateni ŵakathereskeka na Ŵaciparata pa nkhondo ya pa nyanja ya Aegospotami. Ŵakasintha boma la demokilase na boma liphya la ŵanthu ŵankhongono, lakucemeka Ŵaciteta Ŵanayi. Cifukwa ca nkhaza izo ŵakacitanga, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Ateni ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari aŵa, ndipo ŵakacita nthena kwa nyengo yicoko waka. Ndipouli, apo Ŵaspartan ŵakafumaso, ŵanthu ŵa demokilase ŵakagwiliskira nchito mwaŵi uwu kukoma ŵamazaza na kuwusa Ateni.

Munthu munyake uyo wakalemba sumu zina lake Meletus ndiyo wakamba kumupa mulandu Socrates. Ŵanyake awo ŵakamupa mulandu ŵakaŵa Anytus na Lycon. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza panji viŵiri, kuumaliro wa chihanya panji kukwambilira kwa chihanya, khoti likamba kweruzga mulandu uwu. Pali vifukwa vikuru viŵiri ivyo ŵanthu ŵakasuskiranga Ŵakaboni. Cakwamba, Socrates wakakana cisambizgo ca cisopa ca Ŵagiriki cakuti ŵachiuta nawo ŵakucita viheni nga umo ŵanthu ŵakucitira. Caciŵiri, wakawonekanga nga wakugomezga kuti kuli daimonion, lizgu la mukati ilo, nga ni umo awo ŵakamususkanga ŵakayowoyera, likafuma kwa Ciuta.

Buku la Plato lakuti Apology likwamba na mazgu gha Socrates, uyo wakuzgora mautesi agho ŵanthu ŵakamuyowoyera. Chakwamba, Socrates wakujivikilira ku ŵanthu awo ŵakuti ni munthu wambura kugomezga Chiuta uyo wakuyowoya vya chilengiwa, nga umo buku la Aristophanes la The Clouds likulongolera. Pakulimbana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuti Socrates wakunanga ŵawukirano, Socrates wakazgora kuti wandapangepo munthu munyake mwadala, cifukwa para wangunanga munthu munyake wangaŵa na ngozi yakuti nayo wanangikeso. Pa mulandu wachiŵiri, Socrates wakapempha kuti ŵalongosore makora. Meletus wakawerezgapo kuti Socrates ni wambura kugomezga Ciuta. Socrates wakalongosora mphambano iyo yilipo pakati pa kuleka kugomezga Ciuta na kusopa ŵaciuta ŵatesi. Kufuma apo, wakayowoya kuti iyo ni "cawanangwa ca Ciuta" ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni, cifukwa milimo yake yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni. Pamanyuma pake, wakayowoya kuti nangauli palije munthu uyo wangasanga vinjeru, kweni kupenja vinjeru ni cinthu ciwemi comene ico munthu wangacita.

The Death of Socrates, yakulembeka na Jacques-Louis David (1787). Pa usiku waumaliro mu jere, Socrates wakakumana na ŵabwezi ŵake. Wakadumbiskana nawo ndipo wakalemba mabuku gha Plato gha Crito na Phaedo.

Socrates wakapika mwaŵi wakuti wapeleke cilango cinyake kwa iyomwene wati wasangika na mulandu. Mphanyi wakapempha kuti wafumeko ku Ateni na kukakhala ku caru cinyake, kweni wakacita nthena yayi. M'malo mwake, Plato wakayowoya kuti wakapempha kuti ŵamulipire ndalama na kumupa chakurya zuŵa lililose. Kweni Xenophon wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakapeleka ulongozgi yayi. Ŵeruzgi ŵakakolerana kuti wakomeke cifukwa ŵakamucicizga kuti wamwe nkhombo ya munkhwala wa poyizoni. Pakuzgora, Socrates wakacenjezga ŵeruzgi na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni kuti ŵasambiri ŵake ŵanandi ŵazamuŵasuska, pekha para ŵaŵa ŵanthu ŵawemi. Socrates wakakhala mu jere zuŵa laumaliro cifukwa ca viphikiro vya cisopa ca ku Ateni. Ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakaluta kukamuwona ndipo ŵakamupa mwaŵi wakuti wacimbire, kweni wakakana.

Ŵasayansi ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya ico cikapangiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni kususka Socrates. Pali fundo ziŵiri. Cakwamba, Socrates wakeruzgika cifukwa ca cisopa; caciŵiri, wakeruzgika cifukwa ca ndyali. Fundo yinyake iyo yikusangika sonosono apa njakuti chisopa na ndyali vikaŵa pamoza.

Fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakatambuzgikanga cifukwa ca cisopa yikukhozgeka cifukwa cakuti ivyo Plato na Xenophon ŵakalemba vikulongosora comene mulandu uwu. Mu nkhani izi, Socrates wakulongosoreka kuti wakayezgapo yayi kususka fundo yakuti wakagomezganga yayi ŵaciuta ŵa ku Ateni. Fundo iyi yikususkana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti Chiuta waliko kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagomezganga kuti kulije Chiuta, ŵakeruzgika yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates ndiyo wakasuzgikanga chifukwa cha ndyali. Mbunenesko kuti Socrates wakakhozgera yayi demokilase mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Ŵaciteta 30 ndipo ŵasambiri ŵake ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga demokilase. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka fundo yakuti nkhaza izi zikaŵa za ndyali chifukwa chakuti mu 403 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakaŵagowokera. Ndipouli, nga umo nkhani iyo yikayowoyekera apo Socrates wakeruzgikanga na mabuku ghanyake yikulongolera, awo ŵakamupa mulandu ŵakwenera kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu ivyo vikachitika pambere chaka cha 403 C.E. chindafike.

Zeru zakuganiza

Nthowa ya Socrates

Nkhani ikulu: Socratic method

Nkhani ya Socrates na Aspasia ya Nicolas-André Monsiau. Socrates wakadumbiskananga na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka yayi, kweni na ŵalendo kweniso ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa vyose.

Cinthu cakuzirwa comene ca Socrates wa Plato ni nthowa ya Socrates, panji nthowa ya kususka (elenchus). Buku ili likumanyikwa chomene mu mabuku ghakwambilira gha Plato nga ni Apology, Crito, Gorgias, Republic I, na ghanyake. Mu chiyowoyero ichi, mazgu ghakuti elenchus ghakung'anamulika kuti: Socrates wakudumbiskana nkhani na munthu munyake uyo wakumanya makora nkhani iyi, ndipo kanandi wakuŵa pamoza na ŵanyamata ŵanyake. Socrates wakwamba kudumbiskana na munthu uyo wakuyowoya nayo. Apo wakufumba mafumbo ghanandi, mazgoro ghake ghakususkana na gha munthu wakwamba. Fundo njakuti munthu uyu wakamanyanga yayi ng'anamuro la mazgu agha. Uyo wakuyowoya nayo wangayowoyapo vinyake. Fundo yiphya iyi ndiyo yikupangiska kuti Socrates wafumbenge mafumbo. Pa mafumbo na mazgoro agha, Socrates na uyo wakuyowoya nayo ŵakukhumba kumanya unenesko. Kanandi ŵakulutilira kulongora kuti ŵakumanya yayi. Pakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakudumbiskana nawo ŵakutemwa kuyowoyapo maghanoghano ghawo pa nkhani yinyake, fundo iyi yikupangiska ŵanthu kukayikira maghanoghano ghawo.

Socrates nayo wakayezga maghanoghano ghake kwizira mu nthowa ya Socrates. Ntheura Socrates wakusambizga cisambizgo ca vinjeru vya ŵanthu yayi. M'malo mwake, wakuzomerezga kuti nayo wakumanya yayi apo wakupenja unenesko pamoza na ŵasambiri ŵake ndiposo awo wakuŵapharazgira.

Ŵasayansi ŵakukayikira usange nthowa ya Socrates yikaŵa yiwemi kweniso usange yikaŵa nadi. Mu 1982, Gregory Vlastos, nkhwantha ya vinjeru vyakale, wakayowoya kuti nthowa ya Socrates yingaŵawovwira yayi kumanya unenesko panji utesi wa fundo. Kweni Vlastos wakati, ni nthowa ya kulongolera kuti ivyo munthu wakugomezga vikupambana. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana vigaŵa viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na fundo iyi, kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera kuti Socrates wakakhumbanga kulongora kuti ivyo wakayowoya vikaŵa vyautesi. Kuyana na fundo yakwamba, iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti constructionist approach, Socrates wakayezgapo kuti wasuske fundo yinyake na nthowa iyi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakughanaghana kuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi ŵakuti Socrates wakukhumba waka kulongora kuti fundo iyo wakayowoya njambura kukolerana na ivyo wakayowoya pakwamba.

Kuŵa na maghanoghano gha Socrates

Socrates wakamba kudumbiskana na ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye ng'anamuro lake. Kanandi, Socrates wakwamba kudumbiskana na munthu uyo wakumanya vinandi pa nkhani yinyake mwa kupenja ng'anamuro lake. Kuti wayowoye ng'anamuro lake, Socrates wakwamba kuwunganya viyelezgero vyakupulikikwa makora vya nkharo yiwemi, ndipo pamanyuma wakudumbiskana ivyo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakuyana. Kuyana na Guthrie, Socrates wakakhalanga mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vya vinjeru ŵakasuskanga ng'anamuro la mikhaliro yakupambanapambana yiwemi.

Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates wakakolerana nayo yayi fundo yakuti munthu wakwenera kulongosora vinthu mwakuyana na fundo yake. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti fundo iyi yikamba na Plato m'malo mwa Socrates. Munthu munyake wavinjeru zina lake Peter Geach, wakati Socrates wakazomerezga fundo yakuti munthu wakwenera kulongosora vinthu. Kuyana na Geach, munthu wangamanya fundo nangauli wangamanya yayi umo yikuyowoyekera.

Kuleka kumanya vinthu nga ni Socrates

Malo agho pakaŵa tempile la Apollo ku Delphi, uko kukaŵa msumba wa Pythia. Mazgu gha ku Delphi ghakuti, "Mujisange wekha" ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa kwa Socrates, nga umo vikuwonekera mu nkhani zinandi za Plato.

Socrates wa Plato kanandi wakuyowoya kuti wakumanya yayi umo wakujipulikira, comenecomene para wakuyowoya za fundo za makhaliro nga ni arete (kuŵa muwemi, cikanga) cifukwa wakumanya yayi umo vinthu viliri. Mwaciyerezgero, apo wakeruzgikanga, apo umoyo wake ukaŵa pangozi, Socrates wakati: "Nkhaghanaghananga kuti Evenus ni munthu wakukondwa, usange nadi wali na luso ili (technē), ndipo wakusambizga pa malipiro ghacoko. Nadi, ningajikuzga usange ningamanya (epistamai) vinthu ivi, kweni nkhumanya yayi (epistamai) vinthu ivi". Mu nkhani zinyake za Plato, Socrates wakujiwona kuti wali na vinjeru, ndipo wangawoneka kuti wali na maghanoghano ghakupambana na gha munthu uyo wakumanya yayi.

Pali mauchimi ghakupambanapambana agho ghakulongosora umo vinthu vikaŵira mu nyengo ya Socrates. Chifukwa chimoza ntchakuti Socrates wakuyowoya mwakukhozga panji mwakujiyuyura kuti wasambizge makora ŵanthu. Fundo yinyake njakuti Socrates wakalongosora makora yayi ng'anamuro la "kumanya". Kwa iyo, kumanya vinthu kungang'anamura kupulikiska fundo za makhaliro ghawemi, ndipo Socrates wakukana kuti munthu waŵe na mahara. Mulimose umo vingaŵira, wose ŵakukolerana kuti Socrates wakazomerezga kuti kumanya kuti munthu wakumanya vinandi yayi ni nthowa yakwamba yakuŵira wavinjeru.

Socrates wakumanyikwa kuti wakakana kumanya vinthu, ndipo wakayowoya kuti: "Nkhumanya kuti nkhumanya kalikose yayi". Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti Socrates ndiyo wakalemba fundo iyi mu buku la Plato lakuti Apology. Kweni mu mazgu ghanyake, wakuyowoya kuti wali na mahara. Mwaciyelezgero, mu buku la Plato lakuti Apology, Socrates wakati: "... kweni kucita uheni na kuleka kupulikira uyo wali pacanya pa ine, Ciuta panji munthu, ici nkhucimanya kuti nchiheni ndiposo nchambura kuzirwa"... (Phepiskani, 29b6 ¥7). Mu nkhani yake na Callicles, wakati: "... Nkhumanya makora kuti usange mukukolerana nane pa vinthu ivyo nkhugomezga, mbunenesko nadi".

Ŵanthu ŵakususkana usange Socrates wakaghanaghananga kuti walije mahara panji wakajiwonanga kuti wakumanya yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti wakajiyuyura waka. Kuyana na ivyo Norman Gulley wakayowoya, Socrates wakacitanga nthena kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye nayo. Kweni Terence Irwin wakati mazgu gha Socrates ghakwenera kughapulikikwa nadi.

Gregory Vlastos wakati pali ukaboni wakukwana wakususka vyose viŵiri. Kuyana na maghanoghano ghake, kwa Socrates, "kumanya" kuli na ng'anamuro ziŵiri: Kumanya-C na Kumanya-E (C kukung'anamura "kuŵa na chigomezgo", ndipo E kukung'anamura elenchus, ndiko kuti, nthowa ya Socrates). C-Knowledge ni cinthu cambura kususkika apo E-Knowledge ni cinthu ico cafuma mu fundo ya Socrates. Ntheura, Socrates wakuyowoya unenesko para wakuti wakumanya-C kanthu kanyake, ndipo wakuyowoyaso unenesko para wakuti wakumanya-E, nga ni para munthu wakuleka kupulikira ŵamazaza ŵake. Ŵasambiri wose ŵakukolerana nayo yayi fundo iyi. James H. Lesher wakati Socrates wakayowoya kuti lizgu limoza likuŵa na ng'anamuro limoza (nga ni mu buku la Hippias Major, Meno, na Laches). Lesher wakalongosora kuti nangauli Socrates wakayowoya kuti wakamanyanga yayi umo mikhaliro yiwemi yiliri, kweni wakaghanaghananga kuti nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵangamanya fundo zinyake za makhaliro ghawemi.

Kuyowoya vyakusekeska

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakukhozga soni ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana nthena chifukwa cha umo Plato na Aristotle ŵakulongosolera vya Socrates. Mazgu gha Socrates ghakukwiyiska chomene mwakuti kanandi munthu uyo wakuŵazga wakujifumba usange Socrates wakuneneska. Buku la Plato lakuti Euthyphro lili na mazgu ghakukwiyiska gha Socrates. Nkhani iyi yikwamba apo Socrates wakukumana na Euthyphro, mwanalume uyo wakapa mulandu adada ŵake kuti ŵakoma munthu. Apo Socrates wakapulikanga nkhani iyi kakwamba, wakati: "Nkhuwona kuti ni munthu waliyose yayi uyo wangachita makora [kuzenga mulandu wiske wa munthu] kweni munthu uyo wali na vinjeru vinandi". Apo Euthyphro wakajikuzga cifukwa ca umo wakapulikiskiranga vya Ciuta, Socrates wakazgora kuti "cakuzirwa comene kuti niŵe musambiri winu". Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti Socrates wakuyowoya mwamunthondwe para wakulumba ŵanthu.

Ŵanthu ŵakusambira ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya ivyo Socrates wakachitanga. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki, mazgu gha Socrates ghakaŵa gha kusekeska ŵanthu. Fundo yinyake njakuti Socrates wakabisa uthenga wake wa vinjeru vya ŵanthu na mazgu ghakukwiyiska. Gregory Vlastos wakawona kuti Socrates wali na nkhani zinonono chomene. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Vlastos, mazgu gha Socrates ghali na ng'anamuro limoza. Cakuwonerapo cimoza nchakuti wakukana kuti wakumanya. Vlastos wakughanaghana kuti Socrates wakuyowoya mwakukwenyerezga apo wakuti walije mahara (uko "mahara" ghakung'anamura kumanya tunthu tuchokotuchoko); apo, mwakuyana na fundo yinyake ya "mahara", Socrates wakuyowoya mwambura kubisa para wakuti walije mahara pa nkhani za makhaliro. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakukolerana nayo yayi fundo iyi.

Cisambizgo ca Socrates ca eudaimonism na kucenjera

Ku Socrates, kukhumba kuŵa na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu, ndiko kukupangiska munthu kuchita vinthu vinyake. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Socrates, nkharo yiwemi na umanyi vikukolerana na eudaimonia, kweni ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vinandi yayi pa nkhani iyi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates wakaghanaghananga kuti nkharo yiwemi na mzimu wakufwatuka vikuyana waka. Kuyana na fundo yinyake, nkharo yiwemi yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na mtima wakufwatuka. Fundo yinyake iyo yikususkana ni yakuti, kuyana na Socrates, ŵanthu ŵakukhumba vinthu viwemi panji ivyo ŵakuwona kuti ni viwemi.

Munthu uyo wakughanaghana kuti vinthu vikwenda makora wakuyowoya za umo Socrates wakawoneranga umanyi. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti nkharo yiwemi yose yikuthemba pa kumanya vinthu (pantheura Socrates wakucemeka munthu wa vinjeru). Kweniso wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakulongozgeka na nkhongono zakupulikiska vinthu kuti ŵamanye ivyo ŵakukhumba, uku ŵakuchepeska mulimo wa makhumbiro ghawo. Mu buku la Plato lakuti Protagoras (345 c4 e6), Socrates wakayowoya kuti "palije uyo wakubudiska mwakujipeleka". Mu vinjeru vya Socrates, mahara ndigho ghakaŵa pakwamba kuti munthu waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Nkhani za Plato izo zikukhozgera fundo ya Socrates yakuti vinthu vikwenda makora ni Gorgias (467c8e, apo Socrates wakulongosora ivyo munthu wankhongono wakuchita ivyo vikumovwira yayi) na Meno (77d8b, apo Socrates wakulongosolera Meno kuti palije uyo wakukhumba vinthu viheni. Ŵasambiri ŵakazizwa na fundo ya Socrates yakuti akrasia (kucita vinthu cifukwa ca makhumbiro ghaheni, mwakupambana na ivyo munthu wakumanya panji ivyo wakugomezga) nchambura macitiko. Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Socrates wakazomerezga yayi makhumbiro ghambura kwenelera, nangauli ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates wakazomerezga kuti pali vilato vyambura kwenelera, kweni wakakana kuti ni vyakuzirwa comene pakusankha vyakucita.

Chisopo

Buku la Euthyphro ilo likafuma mu 1578 ilo likalembeka na Henri Estienne. Mabaibolo agho Estienne wakang'anamura ghakaŵa ghanandi ndipo ghakasindikizgikaso kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 200. Ivyo Socrates wakayowoya na Euthyphro vichali kovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya cisopa.

Cifukwa cakuti Socrates wakakananga visambizgo vya cisopa, wakasuska maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yake, ndipo ivyo wakayowoya vikasintha visambizgo vya cisopa mu vilimika vinandi ivyo vikalondezganga. Mu Greece wakale, cisopa cikaŵa cakupambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakondweleranga viphikiro vinandi vya ŵachiuta, nga ni City Dionysia, panji viphikiro vya pa nyumba. Chisopa chikasazgikana na umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakacitanga milimo yawo ya cisopa. Kwamba kale ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya usange Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakusopa panji 'wakususka Ciuta.'

Socrates wakudumbiskana vya Ciuta na mzimu mu mabuku gha Alcibiades, Euthyphro, na Apology. Mu buku la Alcibiades, Socrates wakayaniska umoyo wa munthu na Ciuta, ndipo wakati: "Para munthu wakuwona ici, wakujipulika nga ni Ciuta". Nyengo zose para wakuyowoya vya cisopa wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Mu buku la Euthyphro, Socrates wakayowoya fundo iyo yikamovwira kuti waleke kuchita nga umo ŵanthu ŵakachitiranga nyengo yira. M'malo mwake, iyo wakukhumba kuti visambizgo vya ŵanthu na kupenja umanyi viŵe nthowa yikuru yakusopera ŵaciuta. Cifukwa cakuti wakakananga kusopa kwaunenesko uko ŵanthu ŵakacitanga kale, ndipo wakakuyaniska na kujighanaghanira ŵekha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakeneranga kujisanda kuti ŵamanye umo ŵakusopera.

Socrates wakayowoya kuti ŵachiuta ŵakaŵa ŵavinjeru ndiposo ŵarunji. Pa nkhani ya Euthyphro, pali suzgo linyake. Socrates wakafumba munthu uyo wakayowoyanga nayo za kukolerana pakati pa kusopa Ciuta mwakujipeleka na khumbo la ciuta wankhongono. Mu mazgu ghanyake, kasi kusopa kwaunenesko kukulondezga uwemi panji Ciuta? Fundo za Socrates zikupambana na za Ŵagiriki awo ŵakagomezganga fundo yakuti munthu wapelekenge jiso pa jiso. Socrates wakaghanaghananga kuti uwemi ukufuma ku ŵachiuta yayi, ndipo ŵachiuta ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵakugomezgeka.

Socrates wakalongosora kuti wakagomezganga kuti kuli ŵachiuta mu buku la Plato lakuti Apology. Socrates wa ku Plato wakamanya kuti kuli ŵachiuta. Mu buku la Apology, munthu wangayowoya kuti Socrates ni munthu wambura kupulikiska Chiuta chifukwa cha ivyo wakayowoya vyakukhwaskana na ivyo vingachitika para munthu wafwa. Kweniso wakagomezganga kuti kuli ŵachiuta awo ŵakumuphalira vinthu vyamunthazi. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikamovwira yayi kuti waŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera pa nkhani ya nkharo.

Mu buku la Xenophon lakuti Memorabilia, Socrates wakalemba fundo iyo yikukolerana na fundo yakuti vinthu vikachita kulengeka mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu. Iyo wakuti pakuti vinthu vinandi mu mlengalenga vili na "vimanyikwiro vyakuti Chiuta wali kuvipangiska" (nga ni maso), ipo wakwenera kuti wali kulenga vinthu vyose. Kufuma apo, wakughanaghana kuti Mlengi wakwenera kuti wakumanya vyose ndiposo ngwankhongonozose, kweniso kuti wakalenga vinthu vyose kuti ŵanthu ŵasange chandulo. Nyengo zinyake Socrates wakuyowoya za ciuta yumoza pera, kweni nyengo zinyake wakuyowoya za "ŵachiuta" ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti iyo wakagomezganga kuti kuli chiuta munyake uyo wali na mazaza pa ŵachiuta ŵanyake, panji kuti ŵachiuta ŵakupambanapambana mbanthu awo ŵakuwoneka.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukayika usange ivyo Socrates wakagomezganga vikukolerana na ivyo wakayowoya. Mark McPherran, pulofesa wa vinjeru vya ŵanthu, wakati Socrates wakang'anamuranga chimanyikwiro chilichose icho Chiuta wakupeleka kwizira mu fundo za ŵanthu. Pulofesa wa vinjeru vyakale A. A. Wakutemweka wane. Long wakalongosora kuti ntchiheni kughanaghana kuti Socrates wakagomezganga kuti vinthu vya chisopa na vinjeru vikupambana.

Socratic daimonion

Alcibiades Receiving Instruction from Socrates, a 1776 painting by François-André Vincent, depicting Socrates's daimon

Mu malemba ghanandi (nga ni Euthyphro 3b5; Apology 31c·d; Memorabilia 1.1.2) Socrates wakuti wakupulika chimanyikwiro cha viŵanda, lizgu la mukati ilo likupulikikwa kanandi para wakukhumba kuchita ubudi. Socrates wakalongosora mwakudumura za chiŵanda ichi pa nyengo iyo wakeruzgikanga. Cifukwa ca ici nchakuti kanandi mukunipulika nkhuyowoyapo pa malo ghakupambanapambana, comenecomene fundo yakuti nkhusangana na vinthu vyauzimu na viŵanda, nga ni umo Meletus wakalembera mu mulandu wake. Nkhamba kupulika mazgu ghanyake apo nkhaŵa mwana. Para vyaŵa nthena, vikunovwira kuti nileke kuchita ivyo nkhakhumbanga, kweni vikunovwira yayi. Ici ndico cikanipangiska kuti nileke kucita ndyali, ndipo nkhuwona kuti nchakwenelera nadi". Ŵasayansi ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakughanaghana kuti Daimōnion wa Socrates wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru, wakughanaghana makora, wakughanaghana makora, wakulota, panji wakawona vinthu vyamunthazi.

Nkharo yiwemi na umanyi

Fundo ya Socrates yikulongora kuti mikhaliro yose yiwemi njimoza, cifukwa njimoza mwa mikhaliro iyi. Kuyana na Socrates, cifukwa ico munthu wakuŵira wambura kwenelera nchakuti wakusoŵa mahara. Pakuti umanyi ukuŵa pamoza, mikhaliro yiwemi nayo yikuŵa pamoza. Mazgu ghanyake ghakumanyikwa comene ghakuti "palije uyo wakubudiska mwakujipeleka" nagho ghakafuma ku fundo iyi. Mu buku la Protagoras, Socrates wakalongosora umo mikhaliro yiwemi yikukolerana pakuyowoya vya chikanga. Aristotle wakati: "... Socrates mulara wakaghanaghananga kuti cilato ca umoyo nkhumanya uwemi, ndipo wakapenjerezganga ng'anamuro la urunji, cikanga, na cigaŵa cilicose ca uwemi, ndipo ici cikaŵa cavinjeru, cifukwa wakaghanaghananga kuti uwemi wose ni sayansi, ndipo para munthu wamanya urunji, waŵenge wakunyoloka"...

Chitemwa

Socrates na Alcibiades, na Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, 1813-1816

Mabuku ghanyake ghakulongora kuti Socrates wakatemwananga na Alcibiades na ŵanyamata ŵanyake. Ghanyake ghakulongora kuti Socrates wakaŵa paubwezi na ŵanyamata kuti waŵawovwire kuŵa makora. Mu buku la Gorgias, Socrates wakati wakatemwanga chomene Alcibiades na vinjeru vya ŵanthu, ndipo wakachitanga vibwezi na Protagoras, Meno (76 c) na Phaedrus (227 c). Ndipouli, umo vinthu vikaŵira pakati pa iyo na Alcibiades vikumanyikwa makora yayi.Fundo iyo Socrates wakayowoya pa nkhani ya chitemwa yili kufuma mu buku la Lysis, apo Socrates wakudumbiskana vya chitemwa pa sukulu ya maseŵero ghakukomana pamoza na Lysis na ŵabwezi ŵake. Ŵakwamba kudumbiskana vya citemwa ca ŵapapi na umo cikulongolera wanangwa na mphaka izo ŵapapi ŵakuŵikira ŵana ŵawo. Socrates wakati usange Lysis ngwambura nchito, palije uyo wamutemwenge, nanga ŵangaŵa ŵapapi ŵake. Nangauli ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti nkhani iyi yikwenera kuti yikaŵa yakukondweska, kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti Lysis yikulongora kuti Socrates wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghaheni pa nkhani ya chitemwa. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakususka fundo iyi, ŵakuti cisambizgo ca Socrates cikulongora kuti munthu wakwenera kutemwa muwoli panji mfumu wake kwambura kujighanaghanira yekha. Mu buku lake lakuti Symposium, Socrates wakayowoya kuti ŵana ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵapapi ŵawo ŵakufwa yayi, ndipo ici cikovwira kuti ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti Socrates wakati citemwa nchakuzirwa.

Nchakukondweska kuti Socrates, uyo wakuti wakumanya waka kuti wakumanya yayi, wakucita cinthu cinyake (mu Symposium ya Plato), apo wakuti wayowoyenge unenesko wakukhwaskana na Citemwa, ico wakasambira kwa'mwanakazi wavinjeru.' Armand D'Angour uyo wakumanya vya kale wakayowoya kuti apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Socrates wakaŵa pafupi na Aspasia, ndipo Diotima, uyo Socrates wakamutora kuti ndiyo wakumanya vya chitemwa mu buku lake la Symposium, wakuthemba pa iyo.

Socratic philosophy of politics

Nangauli Socrates wakachitanga ndyali na kusambizga ŵanthu, kweni nchakusuzga kumanya ivyo wakasambizganga. Mu buku la Plato lakuti Gorgias, wakaphalira Callicles kuti: "Nkhugomezga kuti ndine yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Ateni, kuti nileke kuyowoya kuti ndine pera, kweni ndine pera pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yithu, uyo wakuchita ndyali. Ici nchifukwa cakuti nkhani izo nkhuyowoya pa nyengo yiliyose zikuŵa zakukhorweska yayi kweni zakovwira". Ivyo wakayowoya vikulongora kuti wakatinkhanga maungano gha demokilase na ndondomeko zinyake nga nkhuvota, pakuti Socrates wakawonanga kuti ŵandyali na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya makora ŵakuchita vinthu mwakutalulira kuti ŵapusike ŵanthu. Wakaŵikapo mtima yayi kuti waŵe na udindo panji kupeleka malango. M'malo mwake, wakakhumbanga kovwira msumba uwu kuti ukure makora mwa "kovwira" ŵanthu ŵake. Pakuŵa mwenekaya wa caru ici, wakapulikiranga dango. Wakalondezganga malango gha ŵasilikari na kurwa nkhondo mu vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, mu nkhani zake, wakuzunurapo viŵi yayi vya ndyali za nyengo iyo, nga ni ivyo vikachitika pa ulendo wa ku Sicily.

Socrates wakamalira nyengo yake pa kudumbiskana na ŵanthu, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵamazaza ŵa ku Ateni, kusanda vigomezgo vyawo na kufumiska fundo zakususkana. Socrates wakagomezganga kuti wakuŵacitira uwemi cifukwa kwa iyo, ndyali ni nthowa ya kucitira vinthu mu msumba kwizira mu vinjeru vya ŵanthu m'malo mwa kusankha ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana umo Socrates wakaŵira mu nyengo ya ndyali ya ku Ateni, iyo yikaŵa pakati pa ŵamazaza na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa demokilase. Nangauli palije ukaboni wakukhorweska, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Socrates wakatemwanga chomene demokilase. Wakakana kupulikira dango ilo boma la ŵasilikari ŵa mitundu 30 likamupa. Kweni pali ukaboni unyake wakuti Socrates wakatemwanga chomene ŵamazaza: Ŵabwezi ŵake ŵanandi ŵakakolerananga na ŵamazaza, wakayuyuranga maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵanandi ndipo wakasuskanga ndondomeko ya demokilase. Fundo yinyake yikulongora kuti Socrates wakatemwanga chisopa cha demokilase, icho chikukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵachitenge vinthu mwakukwana.

Fundo yinyake njakuti Socrates wakazomerezganga maghanoghano agho ghakaŵa ghakuyana na gha ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa vinthu vyawo, agho ghakaŵa gha ndyali. Fundo iyi yikukolerana na fundo ya mu buku la Crito na Apology, apo Socrates wakuyowoya za ubwezi uwo ulipo pakati pa msumba na ŵanthu. Kuyana na fundo ya Socrates, ŵanthu ŵakujiyimira paŵekha ndipo ŵakufwatuka kufumamo mu msumba usange ŵakukhumba, kweni para ŵakukhala mu msumba ŵakuzomera malango na mazaza agho msumba ukuŵa nagho. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kususka boma. Fundo iyi yikulongora kuti Socrates wakakananga vinthu vyambura urunji, kweniso wakakana kupulikira dango la ŵasilikari 30 lakuti ŵakake Leon. Nga ni umo wakuyowoyera mu Critias, "Munthu wakwenera yayi kucita vinthu vyambura urunji, nanga wangawezgera uheni uwo wacitikira". Pa fundo yikuru, ulongozgi wa Socrates ngwakuti ŵanthu ŵalondezgenge malango gha boma, pekha para ŵaghanaghanirapo comene na kughawona kuti ngaheni.

Chihalo

Nyengo ya Ŵagiriki

Chimanyikwilo cha libwe la mtengo wapatali wa ku Carnilia, ku Roma, cha m'ma 100 B.C.E. cha m'ma 100 C.E. (kumazere); Chithunzi cha pakhoma pa nyumba ya Socrates, cha m'ma 1000 C.E., Museum of Ephesus (kumanja)

Socrates wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵavinjeru wati wafwa. Padera pa Ŵaepikureya na Ŵapironi, visambizgo vyose vya filosofi ivyo vikaŵako pamanyuma pa Socrates vikafuma kwa iyo. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kumutemwa chomene Socrates m'paka mu 300 C.E. Masukulu ghakupambanapambana ghakazgoranga mafumbo ghakuzirwa nga ni chilato cha umoyo panji umo vinthu viliri, pakuti Socrates wakaŵazgora yayi. Ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti wakasintha vinjeru vya ŵanthu kufuma pa kusambira vya chilengiwa, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vinjeru vya ŵanthu pambere Socrates wandize pa charu chapasi.

Ŵasambiri ŵa Socrates ŵakaŵa Euclid wa ku Megara, Aristippus, na Antisthenes. Vikuŵa vyakusuzga kusanga visambizgo vyose vya ŵasambiri ŵa Socrates. Antisthenes wakatinkhanga comene vinthu vyakuthupi. Kuyana na umo wakawoneranga, nkharo yiwemi ndiyo yikaŵa yakuzirwa comene. Diogenes na ŵanthu ŵakususka ŵakalutilira na maghanoghano agha. Mwakupambana na ŵanthu aŵa, Aristippus wakaciskanga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe ŵasambazi ndipo ŵakakhalanga makora. Wakati wafumako ku Ateni na kuwelera ku msumba wake wa Sirene, wakambiska sukulu ya cisambizgo ca Cirenaic iyo yikajintha pa vyakusanguluska, na kukhozgera umoyo wambura kusuzga na vyakusanguluska vya thupi. Sukulu iyi yikapelekeka kwa muzukuru wake. Mu buku la Xenophon, Aristippus wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba yayi kuwusa panji kuwusika na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Mwakusazgirapo, Aristippus wakasuskanga fundo yakuti munthu wangamanya makora yayi umo wakujipulikira. Fundo iyi yikukolerana na fundo ya Socrates yakukhwaskana na kuleka kumanya vinthu. Euclid wakaŵako mu nyengo ya Socrates. Socrates wakati wapika mulandu na kufwa, wakafumako ku Ateni na kuluta ku Megara, uko wakazenga sukulu yakucemeka Megarians. Fundo yake yikajintha pa fundo ya Parmenides iyo yikayowoyeka pambere Socrates wandababike. Euclid wakalutilira na maghanoghano gha Socrates, ndipo wakawonanga chomene mikhaliro yiwemi.

Ŵastoyiki ŵakagomezganga comene Socrates. Ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya Socrates kuti ŵaleke kupambana maghanoghano. Visambizgo vyawo vya makhaliro vikaŵa vyakukhwaskana na umo munthu wangakhalira makora mwa vinjeru na nkharo yiwemi. Ŵastoyiki ŵakagomezganga kuti nkharo yiwemi njakuzirwa comene kuti munthu waŵe wakukondwa, kweniso ŵakasambizganga kuti kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi nkhwakuzirwa comene. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, fundo za Plato zikayowoyanga kuti Socrates ndiyo wakambiska fundo za mu Baibolo. Arcesilaus, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa sukulu iyi pakati pajumpha vilimika 80 kufuma apo Plato wakayipangira, wakasintha visambizgo vya sukulu iyi ndipo sono ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuti ni vyautesi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakagomezganga kuti vinthu ni viwemi yayi ŵakakwesananga na Ŵasitoiki pa nkhani ya uyo wakeneranga kulondezga fundo za Socrates. Apo Ŵasitoiki ŵakasuskanga fundo za mu Baibolo, Arcesilaus wakathembanga fundo za Socrates. Ŵasitoiki ŵakamuzgora Arcesilaus kuti Socrates wakamanya yayi vinthu vinyake (pakuti iwo ŵakakanizganga kuyowoya vyanthena).

Nangauli Aristotle wakawonanga kuti Socrates ni munthu wakuzirwa, kweni iyo wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa yayi. Munthu munyake uyo wakasambiranga na Aristotle, zina lake Aristoxenus, wakalemba buku ilo likulongosora makora ivyo Socrates wakachitanga.

Ŵaepikuro ŵakasuskanga Socrates. Ŵakamususka cifukwa ca kugomezga mizimu yiheni ndiposo cifukwa cakuti wakagomezganga viŵanda. Kweniso ŵakasuskanga Socrates cifukwa ca mikhaliro yake na maubudi ghake, ndipo ŵakadodoliskanga comene pa ivyo wakacitanga.

Ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za Pyrrhon ŵakasuskanga Socrates, ŵakamunenanga kuti wakutemwa kuyowoya vya nkharo, wakujiyuyura, kweniso wakuseka ŵanthu.

Charu cha nyengo ya pakati

Chithuzithuzi cha Socrates mu mupukutu wa Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik

Fundo za Socrates zikafika ku Middle East pamoza na za Aristotle na Stoiki. Ŵasambiri ŵakwambilira ŵa Chisilamu nga ni Al-Kindi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, na Muʿtazila ŵakang'anamura mabuku gha Plato ghakulongosora vya Socrates na mabuku ghanyake gha Chigiriki. Ŵasambiri ŵa Cisilamu ŵakamuchindikanga comene Socrates cifukwa ca kulondezga fundo zake zaurunji na umoyo wake. Ivyo Socrates wakasambizganga vikasintha kuti vikolerane na chisopa cha Cisilamu. Ivyo wakacita vikulutilira pa caru cose ico cikuyowoya Ciarabu.

Mu nyengo za pakati, fundo zichoko waka za Socrates zikapona mu Chikhristu chose; kweni, mabuku ghakulongosora za Socrates agho ghakalembeka na ŵanthu ŵakusambira vya Chikhristu nga ni Lactantius, Eusebius na Augustine ghakasungikira mu Ufumu wa Byzantium, uko Socrates wakasambizgikanga na Ŵakhristu. Ŵakati ŵathereska msumba wa Constantinople, mabuku ghanandi agha ŵakaghawezgera ku Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Romu, ndipo ŵakaghalemba mu Cilatini. Mu nyengo ya Renaissance, visambizgo vya Socrates vikaŵa vyakukayikira chomene.

Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya Renaissance ku Italy, ŵanthu ŵakalongosora vinthu viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na Socrates. Ku cigaŵa cimoza, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa comene ŵalembi ŵa Baibolo. Leonardo Bruni wakang'anamura mabuku ghanandi gha Plato ghakuyowoya vya Socrates, ndipo msambiri wake Giannozzo Manetti wakalemba buku la Life of Socrates. Wose ŵakayowoya kuti Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakujiyuyura kweniso wakutemwa ndyali. Bruni na Manetti ŵakakhumbanga kuvikilira chisopa chautesi nga ni nthowa yambura kwananga ya umoyo. Pakucita nthena, ŵakeneranga kujara vigaŵa vinyake vya nkhani zake, comenecomene izo zikawonekanga nga zikukhozgera kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera panji kuti zikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵana (nga umo vikaŵira na Alcibiades), panji izo zikayowoyanga kuti Socrates wakaŵa ciuta. Kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakasambizganga vya Plato ŵakamuwonanga mwakupambana Socrates. Ficino wakakondwa comene na umo Socrates wakasambizgiranga mwambura kughanaghana makora. Ficino wakajambura Socrates nga ni munthu mutuŵa, ndipo wakayaniska na umoyo wa Yesu Khristu. Kwa Ficino na ŵalondezgi ŵake, Socrates wakazomerezga kuti vinjeru vyose vikufuma kwa Ciuta.

Mazuŵa ghano

Socrates pamoza na ŵawoli ŵake (ŵakaŵa ŵakutorana kamoza panji kaŵiri) na ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵakuwoneka pa vithuzithuzi vinandi. Pa cithuzithuzi ici pali Socrates, Ŵanakazi ŵake ŵaŵiri, na Alcibiades, cithuzithuzi ca Reyer van Blommendael, munthu wa ku Netherlands. Kanandi, muwoli wake Xanthippe, wali yekha panji pamoza na Myrto (mwanakazi munyake wa Socrates) ŵakumuwoneska kuti wakutaya maji pa Socrates.

Mu nyengo ya ku France, vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu umoyo wa Socrates ndivyo vikamupangiska kuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito Socrates kuti ŵalongosore nkhani izo zikaŵa zakusuzga mu nyengo yawo, nga ni Theophile de Viau, uyo wakalongosora kuti Socrates wakaŵa Mkhristu ndipo ŵakamuyowoyera kuti ni wambura Chiuta. Michel de Montaigne wakalemba vinandi vyakukhwaskana na Socrates, ndipo wakayaniska Socrates na ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa chomene chisopa.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany ŵakamba kutemwa chomene Socrates, chomenechomene chifukwa cha ntchito ya Hegel. Kuyana na Hegel, Socrates wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵali na wanangwa wa kusankha ŵekha vyakuchita. Nangauli Hegel wakulumba Socrates cifukwa ca ivyo wakacita, kweni wakususka yayi ivyo khoti la ku Ateni likayowoya cifukwa cakuti Socrates wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha. Kweniso, Hegel wakuwona kuti Socrates wakugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru nga ni umo Protagoras wakalongosoleranga fundo za ŵanthu (nga umo mazgu ghakuti "munthu ndiyo wakuyegha vinthu vyose" ghakulongosolera), kweni wakasintha: ni vinjeru vithu ivyo vingatovwira kuti tiŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Kweniso Hegel wakawonanga kuti Socrates ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kwa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti kuli Chiuta.

Søren Kierkegaard wakawonanga kuti Socrates ndiyo wakaŵa msambizgi wake, ndipo wakalemba buku lake lakuti The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates. Mu buku ili, wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakaŵa wavinjeru yayi, kweni wakaŵa munthu wakususka waka. Wakayowoyaso umo Socrates wakachitira kuti waleke kulemba: kwa Kierkegaard, kuleka kulemba kukaŵa chimanyikwiro cha kujiyuyura. Kuyana na Kierkegaard, Socrates wakalembapo yayi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga nayo nyengo yimoza ŵakamupulikiska yayi. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Kierkegaard, buku la Plato lakuti Apology ndilo likaŵa pafupi na Socrates. Mu ivyo wakalemba, wakakumanaso na Socrates kanandi waka. Mu milimo yake yakunthazi, Kierkegaard wakasanga fundo za mu fundo za Socrates. Socrates wakaŵa waka munthu wakusambira yayi kwa Kierkegaard, kweniso wakaŵa munthu uyo wakalongoranga. Iyo wakalemba kuti: "Ivyo nkhuyowoya vikukolerana waka na ivyo wakachita Socrates. Ntchito yane ni iyo Socrates wakachita, ya kuwona umo Mkhristu wakuwonekera". Kierkegaard wakakana kuti ni Mkhristu, nga umo Socrates nayo wakakanira kuti walije mahara.

Friedrich Nietzsche wakakwiya comene na ivyo Socrates wakacita kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵasambire. Mu buku lake lakwamba, lakuti The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche wakati Socrates ndiyo wakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵaleke kwenda makora mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E. Kwa Nietzsche, Socrates wakasintha vinjeru vya ŵanthu kufuma ku ivyo vikaŵa pambere Socrates wandababike kuya ku vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Iyo wakalemba kuti: "Nkhughanaghana kuti [Ŵasambiri ŵa Socrates] ndiwo ŵakambiska kusintha kwa Ŵagiriki: kweni Socrates yayi"; "Apo Empedocles na Democritus ŵakaŵako, Ŵagiriki ŵakaŵa pa nthowa yiwemi yakuwonera umo umoyo wa munthu uliri, umo uliri wambura kupulikikwa, ndiposo umo ukuŵira wakusuzgika; kweni cifukwa ca Socrates, ŵakafiska yayi cilato ici". Nietzsche wakayowoya kuti vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi pa nyengo yira. Mu buku linyake, lakuti The Twilight of the Idols (1887), Nietzsche wakalutilira kulimbana na Socrates. Wakulemba kuti: "Nkhayezga kuti nipulikiske umo suzgo la Socrates likambira. Wakakondwanga comene na cisambizgo ici cakuti munthu wakuyana na munyake yayi. Kwamba m'ma 1800 m'paka m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanyanga kuti Nietzsche wakakhumbanga yayi kuti Socrates waŵe na maghanoghano ghakwimikana na vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Walter Kaufmann wakalemba nkhani yakulongora kuti Nietzsche wakatemwanga chomene Socrates. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Nietzsche wakatinkhanga Socrates.

Cikozgo ca Socrates kuwaro kwa National Library of Uruguay, Montevideo

Ŵafilosofe ŵa pa caru cose, Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss na Karl Popper, ŵakati ŵawona vinthu vyakofya ivyo vikacitika pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵakati ŵawona kuti maboma ghakutemwera vinthu vyaŵene ghakamba kuwusa, ŵakawona kuti Socrates ni munthu uyo wali na njuŵi yiwemi. Arendt, mu buku lake lakuti Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakajifumbanga mafumbo nyengo zose na kujisanda kuti waleke kuchita viheni. Strauss wakuwona kuti maghanoghano gha Socrates ghakuyana waka na gha Plato. Iyo wakuwona kuti munthu munyake wakuchemeka Socrates mu buku la Plato lakuti The Republic wakulongosora chifukwa icho boma likuchitira vinthu mwakukolerana yayi na umoyo wa ŵanthu. Popper wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakususka fundo za Plato. Kwa Popper, munthu uyo wakulondezga fundo za Socrates, pamoza na demokilase ya ku Ateni, vikung'anamura fundo ya Popper yakuti "mbumba yakujulika" nga umo yili kulembekera mu buku lake lakuti Open Society and Its Enemies (1945).

Wonaniso

• Bibliography of Socrates
• De genio Socratis
• List of cultural depictions of Socrates
• List of speakers in Plato's dialogues
• Socratic fallacy
• Socratic Letters

Ukaboni

• Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (2009). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Ahbel-Rappe, Sara (2011). Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-3325-1.
• Alon, Ilai (2009). "Socrates in Arabic Philosophy". In Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. pp. 313–326. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch20. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Ambury, James M. (2020). "Socrates". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2 Juni 2021.
• Ausland, Hayden W. (15 Meyi 2019). "Socrates in the Early Nineteenth Century, Become Young and Beautiful". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. BRILL. pp. 685–718. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3.
• Benson, Hugh H. (2011). "Socratic Method". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–200. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.008. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Benson, Hugh H. (3 Janyuwale 2013). "The priority of definition". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 136–155. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Bett, Richard (2011). "Socratic Ignorance". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–236. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.010. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Bowman, Brady (15 Meyi 2019). "Hegel on Socrates and the Historical Advent of Moral Self-Consciousness". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. BRILL. pp. 749–792. doi:10.1163/9789004396753_030. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 181666253.
• Brickhouse, Thomas C.; Smith, Nicholas D. (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socratic Moral Psychology". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 185–209. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Campos-Daroca, F. Javier (15 Meyi 2019). "Epicurus and the Epicureans on Socrates and the Socratics". In Moore, Christopher (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. Brill Publishers. pp. 237–265. doi:10.1163/9789004396753_010. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182098719.
• D'Angour, Armand (2019). Socrates in Love. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-14-08-88391-4.
• Döring, Klaus (2011). "The Students of Socrates". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–47. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.002. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Dorion, Louis André (2011). "The Rise and Fall of the Socratic Problem". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–23. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.001. hdl:10795/1977. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Guthrie, W. K. C. (1972). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 3, The Fifth Century Enlightenment, Part 2, Socrates. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511518454. ISBN 978-0-521-09667-6.
• Griswold, Charles L. (2011). "Socrates' Political Philosophy". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–352. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.014. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Hankins, James (2009). "Socrates in the Italian Renaissance". In Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. pp. 337–352. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch21. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Johnson, Curtis (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socrates' political philosophy". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 233–256. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Jones, Daniel (8 Juni 2006). English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68086-8.
• Kahn, Charles H. (4 Juni 1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511585579. ISBN 978-0-521-64830-1.
• Konstan, David (2011). "Socrates in Aristophanes' Clouds". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–90. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.004. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Lane, Melissa (2011). "Reconsidering Socratic Irony". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 237–259. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.011. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Lapatin, Keneth (2009). "Picturing Socrates". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 110–155. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Lesher, J. H. (James H.) (1987). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". Journal of the History of Philosophy. Project Muse. 25 (2): 275–288. doi:10.1353/hph.1987.0033. ISSN 1538-4586. S2CID 171007876.
• Long, A.A. (2009). "How Does Socrates' Divine Sign Communicate with Him?". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 63–74. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch5. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Long, A.A. (2011). "Socrates in Later Greek Philosophy". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 355–379. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.015. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Loughlin, Felicity P. (15 Meyi 2019). "Socrates and Religious Debate in the Scottish Enlightenment". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. BRILL. pp. 658–683. doi:10.1163/9789004396753_027. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182644665.
• May, Hope (2000). On Socrates. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-57604-2.
• McPherran, Mark L. (2011). "Socratic religion". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 111–127. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.006. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• McPherran, Mark L. (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socratic theology and piety". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 257–277. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• McPartland, Keith (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socratic Ignorance and Types of Knowledge". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 94–135. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• McLean, Daniel R. (2009). "The Private Life of Socrates in Early Modern France". In Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. pp. 353–367. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch22. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Muench, Paul (2009). "Kierkegaard's Socratic Point of View". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 389–405. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch24. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Nails, Debra (2020). Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "Socrates". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Ober, Josiah (2010). "Socrates and Democratic Athens". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–178. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.007. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
• Obdrzalek, Suzanne (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socrates on Love". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 210–232. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Porter, James I. (2009). "Nietzsche and 'The Problem of Socrates'". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 406–425. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch25. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Ralkowski, Mark (3 Janyuwale 2013). "The politics of impiety why was Socrates prosecuted by the Athenian democracy ?". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 301–327. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Raymond, Christopher C. (15 Meyi 2019). "Nietzsche's Revaluation of Socrates". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. BRILL. pp. 837–683. doi:10.1163/9789004396753_033. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182444038.
• Reshotko, Naomi (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socratic eudaimonism". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 156–184. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Rowe, Christopher (2006). "Socrates in Plato's Dialogues". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 159–170. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch10. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Rudebusch, George (2009). "Socratic Love". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 186–199. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch11. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Segvic, Heda (2006). "No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 171–185. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch10. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.
• Schur, David; Yamato, Lori (15 Meyi 2019). "Kierkegaard's Socratic Way of Writing". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. Brill Publishers. pp. 820–836. doi:10.1163/9789004396753_032. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 181535294.
• Trizio, Michele (15 Meyi 2019). "Socrates in Byzantium". In Moore, Christopher (ed.). Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates. Brill Publishers. pp. 592–618. doi:10.1163/9789004396753_024. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182037431.
• Vasiliou, Iakovos (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Socratic irony". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 20–33. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Vlastos, Gregory (1985). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". The Philosophical Quarterly. Oxford University Press (OUP). 35 (138): 1–31. doi:10.2307/2219545. ISSN 0031-8094. JSTOR 2219545.
• Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9787-2.
• Waterfield, Robin (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• Wolfsdorf, David (3 Janyuwale 2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 34–67. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2.
• White, Nicholas (2009). "Socrates in Hegel and Others". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 368–387. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch23. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1.

Vinandi

• Brun, Jean (1978). Socrate (in French) (sixth ed.). Presses universitaires de France. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-2-13-035620-2.
• Benson, Hugh (1992). Essays on the philosophy of Socrates. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506757-6. OCLC 23179683.
• Rudebusch, George (2009). Socrates. Chichester, U.K. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5085-9. OCLC 476311710.
• Taylor, C. C. W. (1998). Socrates. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287601-0.
• Taylor, C. C. W. (2019). Socrates: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-883598-1.
• Vlastos, Gregory (1994). Socratic Studies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44735-5.

Vigaŵa vya kuwaro

• Socrates at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
• The Dialogues of Plato at Project Gutenberg