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Usanthuro

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Kufuma Wikipedia
(Kufumila ku Sayansi)

Usanthuro panji kuti Sayansi ni sambiro landondomeko ilo likuzenga na kulongosora umanyi mu nthowa ya maghanoghano ghakuyezgeka na kuloska vya chilengiwa-chose.[1][2] Sayansi ya mazuŵa ghano kanandi yikugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri – panji vitatu – vikuru:[3] natural sciences, izo zikusambira vya physical world, na social sciences, izo zikusambira vya ŵanthu na magulu gha ŵanthu.[4][5] Nangauli zikuchemeka formal sciences, masambiro gha logic, mathematics, na theoretical computer science kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ngapadera chifukwa ghakugwiliskira ntchito deductive reasoning m’malo mwa scientific method ngati ni nthowa yawo yikuru yakusangira umanyi.[6][7][8][9] Pa nyengo yeneyiyi, applied sciences ni masambiro agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito umanyi wa sayansi pa vinthu vyakovwira pa umoyo, nga ni vyakuŵaja (engineering) na vya chipatala (medicine).[10][11][12]

Mbiri ya sayansi yikutora chigaŵa chikuru cha mbiri ya charu, ndipo maluso ghakwambilira agho ghakafuma ku sayansi ya mazuŵa ghano ghakayamba mu nyengo ya Bronze Age mu vyaru vya Egypt na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Ivyo ŵakasanga pa nkhani ya mathematics, astronomy, na vya chipatala vikawovwira chomene natural philosophy ya ku Greece mu nyengo ya classical antiquity ndipo pamanyuma vikawovwira masambiro gha m’nyengo ya medieval scholarship, m’mene pakayezgeka kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu physical world mwakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyachilengiwa; apo nthowa zinyake zakuluta panthazi, kusazgapo kwiza kwa Hindu–Arabic numeral system, kukachitika mu nyengo ya Golden Age of India na Islamic Golden Age.[13]:{{{1}}}[14][15][16][13]:{{{1}}} Kusangikaso na kukhazikika kwa mabuku gha Chigriki na kafukufuku wa Chisilamu ku Western Europe mu nyengo ya Renaissance kukawuska so natural philosophy,[13]:{{{1}}}[17] iyo pamanyuma yikasinthika na Scientific Revolution iyo yikayamba m’ma 1600[18] apo maghanoghano na vinthu viphanya ivyo vikasangika vikapambananga na visambizgo vya Chigriki ivyo vikaŵako kale.[13]:{{{1}}}[19] scientific method yikayamba kugwira ntchito yikuru pakusanga umanyi, ndipo mu ma 1800, vinthu vinandi vya vipatala na maluso gha sayansi vikayamba kuoneka,[20][21] pamoza na kusintha kwa zina lakuti "natural philosophy" kuŵa "natural science".[22]

Umanyi uphanya mu sayansi ukuluta panthazi kwizira mwa kafukufuku uyo wakuchitika na ŵasayansi awo ŵali na khumbo lakumanya vinandi vya charu na khumbo lakumazga masuzgo.[23][24] Kafukufuku wa sayansi wa mazuŵa ghano ngwakukolerana chomene ndipo kanandi wakuchitika na magulu gha ŵanthu mu masukulu ghapachanya na vipatala vya kafukufuku,[25] mu maofesi gha boma,[13]:{{{1}}} na mu makampani.[26] Chandulo cha ntchito yawo chapangiska kuti paŵe ndondomeko za sayansi izo zikukhumba kovwira pa nkhani za sayansi mwakuŵika pakwamba kukuzga kwa makhaliro ghawemi pa vyamalonda, vilwero, chisamaliro cha umoyo, katundu wa boma, na kuvikilira chilengiwa.

Kwakufumila Lizgu

Zina lakuti science lakhala likugwiliskira ntchito mu Chingelezi kufuma m’ma 1300 (Middle English) mu ng’anamuro lakuti "mukhaliro wa kumanya". Zina ili likatoleka kufuma ku Anglo-Norman language ngati ni mchira wa zina -cience, uwo nawo ukatoleka kufuma ku lizgu la Latin lakuti scientia, ilo likung’anamura 'umanyi, kumanyiska, panji kupulikiska', ilo lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti sciens ilo likung’anamura 'kumanya', ilo pakwamba likaŵa chigaŵa cha lizgu lakuti sciō 'kumanya'.[27]

Paliso maghanoghano ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na mathero gha lizgu lakuti science. Kuyana na Michiel de Vaan, nkhwantha ya viyowoyero ya ku Dutch ndipo m’manyi wa Indo-Europeanist, lizgu lakuti sciō lingaŵa kuti likafuma mu chiwowoyero cha Proto-Italic language ngati *skije- panji *skijo- ilo likung’anamura 'kumanya', ilo lingaŵa kuti likafuma mu Proto-Indo-European language ngati skh1-ie, skh1-io ilo likung’anamura 'kudumura panji kusanda'. Buku lakuti Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben likulongosora kuti sciō likafuma ku lizgu lakuti nescīre, ilo likung’anamura 'kuleka kumanya, panji kuleka kuŵa na chizolowezi na vinthu', ilo lingaŵa kuti likafuma ku Proto-Indo-European sekH- mu Chilatini secāre, panji skh2- kufuma ku sḱʰeh2(i)- ilo likung’anamura 'kudumura'.[28]

Mu nyengo zakale, sayansi yikaŵa zina linyake la "umanyi" panji "sambiro", kuyana na mathero gha lizgu ili mu Chilatini. Munthu uyo wakachitanga kafukufuku wa sayansi wakachemekanga "natural philosopher" panji "man of science".[29] Mu 1834, William Whewell wakambiska lizgu lakuti scientist mu nkhani ya kusanda buku la Mary Somerville lakuti On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences,[30] ndipo wakati lizgu ili likafuma kwa "mwanalume munyake wamahara" (uyo panji wakaŵa iyo mwene).[31]

Mbiri

Mbiri ya kudanga

Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals
Libwe la Plimpton 322 lakuchemeka na ŵa ku Babiloni likulemba manambala gha matatu gha Pitagolasi (Pythagorean triples), ndipo likalembeka m’ma 1800 BCE.

Sayansi yilije manyambiro ghamoza ghakuwoneka. M’malo mwake, kaghanaghaniro ka sayansi kakamba pachoko na pachoko mu vilimika masauzgo ghanandi ivyo vyajumpha,[32][33] ndipo kakawonekanga mu nthowa zakupambanapambana pa charu chose, kweni pali vinyake vichoko ivyo vikumanyikwa pakukhwaskana na manyambiro ghakwambilira chomene. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na ntchito yikuru mu sayansi ya mu nyengo yakale chomene,[34] mwakuyana waka na maluso gha chisopa.[35] Nkhwantha zinyake zikugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti "protoscience" pakulongosora milimo ya mu nyengo yakale iyo yikuyana na sayansi ya mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake kweni mu vyose yayi;[36][37][38] kweni, lizgu ili lasuskika na ŵanyake kuti likuyuyura milimo ya ŵanthu ŵakale,[39] panji likuyezga kuŵerengera milimo yawo mwakuyana waka na kaghanaghaniro ka mazuŵa ghano (presentism).[40]

Ukaboni wakuwoneka wa sayansi ukukhozgeka chomene na kwiza kwa nthowa zakulembera mu vyaru vya mu nyengo ya Bronze Age nga ni Ancient Egypt na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), kupanga mabuku ghakwambilira kulembeka mu mbiri ya sayansi.[13]:{{{1}}}[14] Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "sayansi" na "chilengiwa" ghakaŵako yayi pa nyengo yira, ŵanthu ŵa ku Egypt na Mesopotamia ŵakawovwira pa vinthu ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa na malo mu sayansi ya Chigriki na ya m’nyengo ya medieval: mathematics, astronomy, na vya chipatala.[41][13]:{{{1}}} Kufuma m’ma 2000 BCE, ŵanthu ŵa ku Egypt ŵakapanga nthowa ya decimal numbering system,[42] ŵakamazganga masuzgo mwakugwiliskira ntchito geometry,[43] na kupanga kalendala.[44] Chovwiro chawo cha munkhwala chikasazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito miti ya munkhwala na vinthu vyamzimu, nga ni malurombo na maluso ghanyake.[13]:{{{1}}}

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mesopotamia ŵakagwiliskira ntchito umanyi wa vinthu vyachilengiwa pakupanga viŵiya vya dongo, glass, sopo, visulo, na nthowa zakuvikilira maji.[45] Ŵakasambiranga vya thupi la vinyama, makhaliro gha vinyama, na vya nyenyezi (astrology) mwakukhumba kumanya vya munthazi.[46] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mesopotamia ŵakaŵa na khumbo likuru pa vya chipatala ndipo vikalata vyakwambilira vya munkhwala vikawoneka mu viyowoyero vya Sumerian mu nyengo ya Third Dynasty of Ur.[45][47] Tikugomezga kuti ŵakasambiranga vya sayansi ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito pa umoyo wawo panji pa chisopa, kweni ŵakaŵe na khumbo likuru la kumanya vinthu ntheura faka yayi.[45]

Classical antiquity

Framed mosaic of philosophers gathering around and conversing
Chithuzi cha mosaic cha Academy ya Plato, icho chikapangika pakati pa vyaka vya 100 BCE na 79 CE, chikulongora ŵanthu ŵavinjeru (ŵafilozofa) na ŵasungwanu ŵanandi ŵa ku Giriki.

Mu nyengo ya classical antiquity, kukaŵavya munthu uyo wangayaniskika na m’sayansi wa mazuŵa ghano. M’malo mwake, ŵanalume ŵakusambira chomene, kanandi ŵakufuma mu mabanja ghakulemba, ŵakachitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana pa vinthu vyachilengiwa pa nyengo ilo ŵakaŵira na mpata.[48] Pambere maghanoghano gha phusis panji chilengiwa ghandasandulike na ŵanthu ŵamahara ŵa nyengo ya pambere Socrates andhaŵako, mazgu ghamoza ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakulongosora umo chinthu chikutulira (nga ni khuni), ndipo pa nyengo yeneyiyo pakulongosora "nthowa" iyo fuko linyake likusopera chiuta wawo. Pa chifukwa ichi, chikuyowoyeka kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵamahara (philosophers) ŵakwambilira awo ŵakapambaniska pakati pa "chilengiwa" na "maluso gha ŵanthu".[49]

Ŵanthu ŵamahara ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Greece ŵa mu sukulu ya Milesian, iyo yikayambika na Thales of Miletus ndipo yikalutilira na Anaximander na Anaximenes, ŵakaŵa ŵakwambilira kuyezga kulongosora vinthu vyachilengiwa kwambura kuthemba mizimu.[50] Ŵa Pythagoreans ŵakapanga maghanoghano ghakusuzga gha manambala[51]:467–468 ndipo ŵakawovwira chomene pakukuzga sayansi ya masamu.[51]:465 Chiyelezgero cha ma atomu chikayambika na m’mafilosofa wa ku Greece zina lake Leucippus na msambiri wake Democritus.[52] Pamanyuma, Epicurus wakazenga kaghanaghaniro ka chilengiwa chose kakujintha pa ma atomu. Dokotala wa ku Greece Hippocrates wakambiska maluso gha sayansi ya chipatala[53] ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "Wiske wa vya Chipatala".[54]

Kusinthika kukuru mu mbiri ya sayansi yakwambilira kukiza chifukwa cha chiyelezgero cha Socrates uyo wakagwiliskira ntchito mautali gha mahara pa masambiro gha ŵanthu, kusazgapo mukhaliro wa munthu, magulu gha ndale, na umanyi wa ŵanthu. Socratic method iyo yikulembeka mu mabuku gha Plato ni nthowa ya kudumbiskana m’malo mwakufumya maghanoghano ghaboza: maghanoghano ghawemi ghakusangika mwa kusanda na kufumyapo agho ghakupambana. Socrates wakasuskanga masambiro gha kale gha physics chifukwa ghakaŵa gha maghanoghano waka kwambura kujisanda.[55]

Mu vilimika vya m’ma 300 BCE, Aristotle wakambiska ndondomeko yakusanda vinthu mwakuyana na chilato chake (teleological). Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, m’manyi wa nyenyezi wa ku Greece Aristarchus of Samos wakaŵa wakwambilira kuyowoya kuti dazi lili pakati pa chilengiwa chose ndipo mapulaneti ghose ghakulizungulira (heliocentric model).[56] Maghanoghano gha Aristarchus ghakakanika na ŵanthu ŵanandi pa nyengo yira chifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti ghakususkana na malango gha physics, m’malo mwake buku la Ptolemy la Almagest, ilo likatenge charu chapasi ndicho chili pakati, ndilo likapulikikwa kufika m’nyengo ya Renaissance.[57] Munthu wakupanga vinthu na nkhwantha ya masamu Archimedes of Syracuse wakawovwira chomene pa manyambiro gha calculus.[58] Pliny the Elder wakaŵa mulembi wa ku Roma uyo wakalemba buku likuru lakuyana na encyclopedia lakuti Natural History.

Nthowa ya Positional notation yakulembera manambala yikayamba kuwoneka pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 200 na 400 CE kwizira mu nthowa za malonda za ku India. Nthowa iyi yikapangiska kuti masamu gha arithmetic ghaŵe ghambura kusuzga ndipo yikazgoka nthowa ya pa charu chose mu sayansi ya masamu.[59]

Miwiro yapakati

Picture of a peacock on very old paper
Peji lakwamba la buku la Vienna Dioscurides likulongora chithuzi cha pikoko (peacock), icho chikapangika m’vyaka vya m’ma 600 (6th century).

Chifukwa cha kubwanganduka kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa ku Manjiliro, mu vilimika vya m’ma 400 CE kukaŵa kukhuluka kwa masambiro, ndipo umanyi wa kaghanaghaniro ka Chigriki kakhwaskana na charu ukamba kumara mu Western Europe.[13]:{{{1}}} Ŵalembi ŵa mabuku gha encyclopedia mu Chilatini ŵa nyengo yira nga ni Isidore of Seville ŵakasungilira chigaŵa chikuru cha umanyi wa kale.[60] Kweni mwakupambana na ichi, chifukwa chakuti Ufumu wa Byzantine ukakanizga mauthemba gha ŵalwani, ŵakafiska kusungilira na kunozga masambiro gha kale.[13]:{{{1}}} John Philoponus, nkhwantha ya ku Byzantine mu vilimika vya m’ma 500, wakayamba kususkana na visambizgo vya Aristotle pa vya physics, ndipo wakambiska chiyelezgero cha theory of impetus.[13]:{{{1}}} Kusanda kwake kukawovwira nkhwantha za m’nyengo ya medieval na Galileo Galilei, uyo wakayowoya vya milimo yake pamanyuma pa vilimika chikwi chimoza.[13]:{{{1}}}[61]

Mu nyengo ya late antiquity na Early Middle Ages, vinthu vyachilengiwa vikasandikanga chomene mwakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya Aristotle. Nthowa iyi yikasazgapo vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle: material, formal, moving, na final cause.[62] Mabuku ghanandi gha Chigriki ghakasungilirika na Ufumu wa Byzantine ndipo m’masuliro gha Arabic ghakapangika na Ŵakhristu, chomenechomene ŵa Nestorian na Miaphysites. Pasi pa muwuso wa ma Abbasid, m’masuliro gha Chiarabu agha yakanozgeka na kukuzgika na ŵasayansi ŵa Chiarabu.[63] Pakufika mu vilimika vya m’ma 500 na 600, ufumu wa pafupi wa Sasanian Empire ukakhazikiska sukulu ya vya chipatala ya Academy of Gondishapur, iyo ikawonekanga na madokotala gha Chigriki, Chisiriaki, na Chipersia kuŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene gha vya munkhwala pa charu chose.[64]

Kusanda kwa Chisilamu pa vya Aristotelianism kukakura chomene mu House of Wisdom iyo yikakhazikiskika mu msumba ukuru wa ma Abbasid wa Baghdad, Iraq[65] mpaka mu nyengo ya kuwukira kwa ma Mongol mu vilimika vya m’ma 1200. Ibn al-Haytham, uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Alhazen, wakagwiliskira ntchito vyezgelo vyakulongosoka mu masambiro gha maso (optics).[66] Buku la Avicenna lakuti The Canon of Medicine, ilo ni encyclopedia ya vya chipatala, likuwoneka kuŵa limoza mwa mabuku ghakuzirwa chomene m’mbiri ya munkhwala ndipo likagwiliskirika ntchito mpaka mu vilimika vya m’ma 1700.[67]

Pakufika mu vilimika vya m’ma 1000, vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Europe vikaŵa vya Chikhristu,[13]:{{{1}}} ndipo mu 1088, sukulu ya University of Bologna yikawoneka kuŵa university yakwambilira mu Europe.[68] Chifukwa cha ichi, khumbo la m’masuliro gha Chilatini gha mabuku gha kale na gha sayansi likakura, ndipo ichi chikawovwira chomene pa Renaissance of the 12th century. Maluso gha scholasticism mu manjiliro gha Europe yakakura, ndipo vyezgelo vikachitikanga mwa kulaŵiska, kulongosora, na kupanga ndondomeko ya vinthu vyachilengiwa.[69] Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1200, ŵasambizgi ŵa vya chipatala na ŵasambiri ku Bologna ŵakamba kusemula mathupi gha ŵanthu, ivyo vikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwambilira la kusemula thupi la munthu (anatomy) lakuzingatira pa milimo ya Mondino de Luzzi.[70]

Muwiro wa kubabika kuphya

Chithuzi cha vibwe (heliocentric model) nga ni umo likasachizgira buku la Copernicus lakuchemeka De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, icho chikulongora vyaru vyamulengalenga vikhulungiranga Dazi.

Vinthu viphanya ivyo vikasangika pa nkhani ya optics (sayansi ya kuwona na ungweru) vikawovwira chomene pa nyengo ya Renaissance. Ichi chikachitika mwa kususa maghanoghano gha kale gha metaphysical pa nkhani ya umo munthu wakuwonera vinthu, ndipo chikawovwira pa nkhani ya maluso nga ni camera obscura na telescope. Pakuyamba kwa Renaissance, Roger Bacon, Vitello, na John Peckham ŵakazenga kaghanaghaniro katsopano kakhwaskana na umoyo ako kakamba na umo munthu wakupulikira na makhiriro gha vinthu kuyana na visambizgo vya Aristotle.[71]

Nthowa yakulongosolera umo maso ghakuwonera iyo yikuchemeka perspectivism yikasandulika chomene na ŵaluso ŵa vyakujambula mu nyengo ya Renaissance. Kaghanaghaniro aka kakagwiliskira ntchito vifukwa vitatu pera mwa vinayi vya Aristotle: formal, material, na final.[72]

Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1500, Nicolaus Copernicus wakambiska kaghanaghaniro kakuti dazi lili pakati (heliocentric model) ka Solar System. Wakati mapulaneti ghakuzingulira dazi, m’malo mwa kaghanaghaniro ka kale kakuti mapulaneti na dazi vikuzingulira charu chapasi (geocentric model). Ichi chikajintha pa fundo yakuti nyengo iyo pulaneti likutorera kuzingulira yikuŵa yitali chomene usange lili kutali na dazi, fundo iyo yikapambananga na kaghanaghaniro ka Ptolemy.

Johannes Kepler na ŵanyake ŵakasusa ghanoghano lakuti ntchito ya jiso nkhuwona pera, ndipo ŵakasinthira usambazi wa optics kufuma pa jiso kuŵa pa kukhuluka kwa ungweru.[72] Kweni Kepler wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha kunozga kaghanaghaniro ka Copernicus kwizira mu ivyo vikuchemeka malango gha Kepler gha makhaliro gha mapulaneti. Galileo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya astronomy, physics, na engineering. Kweni, wakayamba kutambuzgika pamanyuma pakuti Papa Urban VIII wamupereka chilango chifukwa chakulemba vya kaghanaghaniro kakuti dazi lili pakati.[73]

Makina ghakupulinta (printing press) ghakagwiliskirika ntchito chomene pakufumiska maghanoghano gha ŵasayansi, kusazgapo agho ghakasuskanga visambizgo vya nyengo yira pa vya chilengiwa.[74] Francis Bacon na René Descartes ŵakafumiska maghanoghano ghakukhozgera sayansi yiphanya. Bacon wakadidimizga kuti vyezgelo (experiments) ndivyo ni vyakuzirwa chomene kuluska kulanguluka waka, ndipo wakati sayansi yisambirenge vya malango gha chilengiwa kuti umoyo wa munthu utumbukenge.[75] Descartes wakakhozgera kaghanaghaniro ka munthu payekha ndipo wakati masamu (mathematics) ndigho ghagwiliskirike ntchito pakusanda chilengiwa.

Muwiro wa kubenuka maso

Peji la mutu la buku la kachitiro kakwamba ka vyaka vya 1687 ka Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica kakulembeka na Isaac Newton.

Pa chiyambiro cha Nyengo ya kubenuka maso, Isaac Newton wakazenga fawundeshoni ya classical mechanics kwizira mu buku lake la Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ilo likawovwira chomene nkhwantha za physics za munthazi.[76] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz wakasazgapo mazgu ghakufuma mu Aristotelian physics, agho pasono ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu nthowa yaphya yambura vilato vya chilengiwa. Ichi chikung’anamura kusintha kwa kaphale kakulaŵiskira vinthu: vinthu pasono vikawonekanga nga vilije vilato vyamukati. Leibniz wakagomezganga kuti vinthu vyakupambanapambana vikugwira ntchito kuyana na malango ghamoza gha chilengiwa, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vyamawonekero panji vyaumaliro.[77]

Pa nthawi iyi, chilato na ntchito ya sayansi yikamba kuŵa kupanga chuma na vinthu viphya ivyo vingawovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu, mu fundo ya vinthu vyakuthupi monga kuŵa na chakurya chinandi, vyakuvwara, na vinthu vinyake. Mu mazgu gha Bacon, "chilato cheneko na chakuzomerezgeka cha sayansi nkhupa umoyo wa munthu vinthu viphya na usambazi", ndipo wakachiska nkhwantha za sayansi kuti zileke kulondezga maghanoghano ghafilosofi panji ghauzimu agho ghangawoneka yayi, chifukwa wakagomezganga kuti vikovwira pachoko ku chimwemwe cha munthu kuluska "utesi wa maghanoghano ghakusuzga panji ghakukondweska".[78]

Sayansi mu nyengo ya Kungweruka yikawusika na mawungano gha sayansi na ma-academy,[79] ivyo vikajira m’malo ma-university kuŵa malo ghakuru gha kafukufuku wa sayansi. Mawungano na ma-academy agha ghakaŵa musana wa kukura kwa ntchito ya sayansi. Chinyake chakuzirwa icho chikachitika chikaŵa kutchuka kwa sayansi pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakalutanga panthazi pa kumanya kuŵazga.[80] Ŵafilosofi ŵa mu nyengo ya Kungweruka ŵakalondezga nkhwantha za sayansi zichoko izo zikalongozga – chomenechomene Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, na Newton – nga mbakulongozga mu chigaŵa chilichose cha masambiro gha chilengiwa na umoyo wa ŵanthu.[81][82]

Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700 kukawoneka kukura kukuru mu vyachipatala[83] na physics;[84] kukura kwa taxonomy ya vyamoyo na Carl Linnaeus;[85] kupulikiska kuphya kwa magnetism na magesi;[86] na kukura kwa chemistry nga ni sambiro lakujiyimira palokha.[87] Maghanoghano pa nkharo ya munthu, umoyo wa ŵanthu, na vyachuma ghakasinthika mu nyengo ya Kungweruka. Hume na ŵakughanaghana ŵanyake ŵa ku Scotland ŵakapanga buku la A Treatise of Human Nature, ilo likawoneka mu milimo ya ŵalembi kusazgapo James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar na William Robertson, awo wose ŵakasazga kusambira kwa sayansi pa umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira mu mitheto yakale na yakuzizika pamoza na kumanya makora nkhongono za umoyo wasono.[88] Masambiro ghasono gha sociology ghakafuma mu gulu ili.[89] Mu 1776, Adam Smith wakafumiska buku la The Wealth of Nations, ilo kanandi likuwoneka nga ntchito yakwamba ya masambiro ghasono gha vyachuma.[90]

Zana la 19

Sketch of a map with captions
Chithuzi chakwamba cha khuni la kazgokero ka vyamoyo (evolutionary tree) icho chikapangika na Charles Darwin mu chaka cha 1837.

Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800 (19th century), vinthu vinandi ivyo vikumanyikwa mu sayansi ya mazuŵa gano vikamba kuoneka. Ivi vikasazgapo kusinthika kwa masambiro gha umoyo (life sciences) na physics; kugwiliskira ntchito chomene vipangizo vyakupimira mwakondondoka; kuoneka kwa mazgu nga ni "biologist", "physicist", na "scientist"; kukura kwa luso la awo ŵakusambira vya chilengiwa; nkhwantha za sayansi kupika ulamuliro wa kakhaliro mu vigaŵa vinandi vya umoyo; kukura kwa mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kutchuka kwa mabuku gha sayansi; na kwamba kwa magazini gha sayansi.[91] Chakumapeto kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1800, masambiro gha maghanoghano (psychology) ghakapatuka ku filosofia apo Wilhelm Wundt wakajura malo ghakwamba ghakuchitirapo kafukufuku wa psychology mu 1879.[92]


Shutterstock Mukati mwa vyaka vya m’ma 1800, Charles Darwin na Alfred Russel Wallace mwakuyana ŵakapeleka fundo ya kusintha kwa vinthu (evolution) kwizira mu natural selection mu 1858, iyo yikalongosora umo vyakumera na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikayambira na kusintha. Fundo yawo yikalongosoreka makora mu buku la Darwin la On the Origin of Species, lofumiskika mu 1859.[93]

Padera pa ichi, Gregor Mendel wakapeleka pepala lake la, "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" mu 1865,[94] ilo likalongosora malango gha umo vinthu vikhaliro vikuperekeka kufuma ku muvyali (biological inheritance), ilo lili nga ni fawundeshoni ya masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha genetics.[95]

Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1800 John Dalton wakasachizga fundo ya mazuŵa gano ya atomic theory, yakuzikiira pa fundo yakale ya Democritus ya timanyung'unyu tuchoko chomene (particles) uto tingagawikana yayi tuchemeka atoms.[96] Malango gha conservation of energy, conservation of momentum na conservation of mass ghakalongora kuti chilengiwa nchakukhazikika chomene ndipo mphavu panji vinthu vinganangika baka yayi. Kweni, chifukwa cha kuoneka kwa injini ya nthuzi (steam engine) na Kusintha kwa Mafakitale, kukawoneka kupulikiska kukuru kwakuti si mphavu zose izo zili na mukhaliro wakuyana (energy quality), panji kupusu kusinthika kuŵa ntchito yiwemi (work) panji kuŵa mukhaliro unyake wa mphavu.[97] Kupulikiska uku kukapangiska kukura kwa malango gha thermodynamics, umo mphavu (free energy) ya chilengiwa yikuwonekera nga yikuchepa nyengo zose: mukhaliro wa ukhuluku (entropy) wa chilengiwa chakujalika ukusazgikira m’maulendo gha nyengo.[lower-alpha 1]

Fundo ya electromagnetic theory yikakhazikika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800 na milimo ya Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, na Heinrich Hertz. Fundo yiphya iyi yikawuska mafumbo agho ghakasuzga kuzgoleka kwizira mu malango gha Newton. Kusangika kwa X-ray kukapangiska kusangika kwa radioactivity na Henri Becquerel pamoza na Marie Curie mu 1896,[100] ndipo Marie Curie wakawa munthu wakwamba kuwina viphale viŵiri vya Nobel (Nobel Prizes).[101] Chaka chakulondezgapo kukasangika kanyung'unyu kakwamba kamukati mwa atom (subatomic particle), electron.[102]

Zana la 20

Graph showing lower ozone concentration at the South Pole
Chithuzi cha kompyuta cha khululu la ozone (ozone hole) icho chikapangika mu chaka cha 1987 kufuma pa chakubekera mlengalenga (space telescope).

Mu hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m’ma 1900 (20th century), kukura kwa antibiotics (mankhwala ghakukoma majeremusi) na artificial fertiliser (fetereza wopangidwa) kukawovwira kukuzga mukhaliro wa umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose.[103][104] Masuzgo ghakofya gha chilengiwa nga ni ozone depletion (kunangika kwa ntheŵetŵe ya ozone), ocean acidification (ukali wa m’nyanja), eutrophication, na climate change (kusintha kwa nyengo) ghakamanyikwa na ŵanthu ndipo ghakapangiska kwamba kwa masambiro gha vya chilengiwa.[105]

Pa nthawi iyi, kuyezgelera kwa sayansi kukamba kuŵa kwa mukhaliro ukuru na ndalama zinandi.[106] Kupanga kwa vinthu viphya kwizira mu sayansi uko kukachiskika na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose, Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, na Nkhondo ya Mazgu kukapangiska mpikisano pakati pa mautongi ghankhongono, nga ni Space Race (mpikisano wa ku malo ghakutali) na mpikisano wa vilwero vya nyukiliya.[107][108] Kukawonekaso kukolerana kukuru kwa vyaru na vyaru, nanga kuli nthe nkhondo zikaŵangapo.[109]

Kukumapeto kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1900, kulemba ntchito ŵanakazi chomene na kufumiskapo kusankhulana pakati pa ŵanakazi na ŵanalume kukasazgirako chiŵerengero cha nkhwantha za sayansi za ŵanakazi, kweni mphambano yikuru yikhalilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.

Kusangika kwa cosmic microwave background mu 1964[110] kukapangiska kukanika kwa fundo ya steady-state model ya chilengiwa na kukhozgera fundo ya Big Bang ya Georges Lemaître.[111]

Mu vyaka 100 ivi kukawoneka kusintha kukuru mu masambiro gha sayansi. Fundo ya evolution yikazgoka fundo yakukolerana kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1900 apo modern synthesis yikasazga evolution ya Darwin na classical genetics.[112] Fundo ya theory of relativity ya Albert Einstein na kukura kwa quantum mechanics vikakwaniska kuleka kuleŵera pa classical mechanics pakulongosora physics mu vigaŵa vya utali, nyengo, na nghongono yakuguza (gravity) vyakuzizwiska.[113][114] Kugwiliskira ntchito chomene integrated circuit (mipangidwe ya magesi) mu vyaka 25 vyaumaliro vya m’ma 1900 kusazgapo communications satellite (masatelaite ghakupeleka uthenga) kukapangiska kusintha kukuru mu tekinoloje ya uthenga na kukura kwa internet ya pa charu chose na mobile computing, kusazgapo smartphone. Kukhumbikwa kwa kusungika kwa uthenga unandi na unandi wa vinthu vikasangika kukapangiska kukura kwa vigaŵa vya systems theory na scientific modelling pakugwiliskira ntchito makompyuta.[115]

Zana la 21

Ntchito ya Human Genome Project yikaŵa yakumalizga mu 2003 pakuzambula na kupanga mapu gha majini ghose gha umunthu.[116] Maselo ghakwamba gha induced pluripotent human stem cells ghakapangika mu 2006, icho chikazomerezga maselo gha munthu mukuru kusinthika kuŵa stem cell na kuŵa selo la mukhaliro uliwose uwo ukusangika mu thupi.[117] Pakukhozgera kusangika kwa Higgs boson mu 2013, kanyung'unyu (particle) kaumaliro ako kakayembekezekanga na Standard Model ya physics kakasangika.[118]

Mu 2015, mafunde gha nghongono ya gravity, agho fundo ya general relativity yikayowoyerathu vyaka 100 kumasinda, ghakawoneka kakwamba.[119][120] Mu 2019, kukolerana kwa vyaru na vyaru kwa Event Horizon Telescope kukalongora chithuzi chakwamba cha chigululu cha black hole.[121]

Minthavi

Sayansi ya mazuŵa gano yikugaŵika mu vigaŵa vikuru vitatu: natural science (sayansi ya chilengiwa), social science (sayansi ya kakhaliro ka ŵanthu), na formal science (sayansi ya malango na mafundo).[3] Chigaŵa chilichose pa vigaŵa ivi chili na masambiro ghapadera agho ghakusazgana ndipo kanandi ghakuŵa na mazgu ghawo na maluso ghawo.[122] Sayansi ya chilengiwa na sayansi ya kakhaliro ka ŵanthu yose ni sayansi yakuchita kuyezgelera,[123] chifukwa chakuti kumanya kwake nkhwakuzikiira pa ivyo vikuwoneka na maso ndipo nkhwakwanitsika kuyezgeka kuti muwone usange nkhunenesko na ŵafukufuku ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu mukhaliro wakuyana.[124]

Sayansi ya chilengiwa

Natural science (sayansi ya chilengiwa) nkhusambira vya charu chakuthupi. Yikugaŵika mu vigaŵa vikuru viŵiri: life science (sayansi ya vyamoyo) na physical science (sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi). Vigaŵa viŵiri ivi vingagaŵikaso mu masambiro ghapadera chomene. Chiyelezgero, physical science yingagaŵika mu physics, chemistry, astronomy (vyakumlengalenga), na earth science (sayansi ya charu chapasi).

Sayansi ya chilengiwa ya mazuŵa gano nkhulondezga kwa natural philosophy iyo yikambira mu Giriki yakale. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, na Newton ŵakasuskana pa uwemi wa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za masamu na kuyezgelera mu nthowa yakulongosoreka makora. Kweni, maghanoghano ghafilosofi, maghanoghano ghakuchita kulingizga, na fundo izo zikambirapo kale, nangauli kanandi zikusulika, zichali zakukhumbikwa mu sayansi ya chilengiwa.[125] Kusunga uthenga mu nthowa yakulongosoreka, kusazgapo discovery science, kukajira m'malo natural history, iyo yikaoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 pakulongosora na kugaŵa vyakumera, vinyama, malibwe, na vinthu vinyake vyamoyo.[126] Mazuŵa ghano, "natural history" yikung'anamura kulongosora ivyo vikuwoneka kwakulingana na ŵanthu baka.[127]

Ya ubali wa ŵanthu

Two curve crossing over at a point, forming a X shape
Gilafu ya kapelekero ka katundu (supply) na kakhumbiro ka ŵaguli (demand) mu vya chuma, iyo yikukhwaskana pa malo ghakwenelera (optimal equilibrium).

Social science (sayansi ya kakhaliro ka ŵanthu) nkhusambira vya nkharo ya ŵanthu na umo magulu gha ŵanthu (societies) ghakugwilira ntchito.[4][5] Yili na masambiro ghanandi agho ghakusazgapo, kweni ngakulekezga papo yayi, anthropology, economics (vyachuma), mbiri (history), human geography, political science (vyandyali), psychology, na sociology.[4]

Mu sayansi ya kakhaliro ka ŵanthu, muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakususkana (theoretical perspectives), ndipo ghanandi mwa agha ghakukuzgika kwizira mu mapulogiramu gha kafukufuku ghakususkana nga ni ŵa functionalists, conflict theorists, na interactionists mu sociology.[4] Chifukwa cha kusuzga kwa kuchita mwayezi ghakuyezgelera (controlled experiments) ghakukhwaska magulu ghakuru gha ŵanthu panji mikhaliro yakusuzga, ŵasayansi ŵa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinyake za kafukufuku nga ni historical method (nthowa ya mbiri), case studies (kusambira chakuchitika chimoza), na cross-cultural studies (kusambira mitheto yakupambanapambana). Kweniso, usange pali uthenga wa manambala (quantitative information), ŵasayansi aŵa ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za masamu gha masitayistiki (statistical approaches) kuti wapulikiske makora kukolerana na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu.[4]

Yandondomeko

Formal science (sayansi ya malango na mafundo) ni chigaŵa cha masambiro icho chikupanga kumanya kwizira mu magulu gha malango.[128][129][130] "Formal system" ni ndondomeko yakhunthuku iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito pakufumiska fundo zakusimikizgika (theorem) kufuma mu fundo zaunenesko zakwambilira (axiom) kuyana na malango ghaŵikika.[131]

Yikasazgapo masamu (mathematics),[132] systems theory, na theoretical computer science (sayansi ya makompyuta ya pa fundo). Sayansi iyi yikuyanako na vigaŵa vinyake viŵiri pakuthemba pa kusambira kwakupwererera, kwakulongosoreka, ndipo kwambura kutemwera. Kweni, yili yakupambana na sayansi yakuyezgelera (empirical sciences) chifukwa yikuthemba chomene pa kughanaghana kwakufumiska fundo (deductive reasoning), kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa ukaboni wa ivyo vikuwoneka na maso, kuti yisimikizge maghanoghano ghake.[8][133][124]

Ntheura, sayansi ya malango iyi ni masambiro gha a priori (kumanya kwambura kuyezgelera), ndipo chifukwa cha ichi, pali kupambana maghanoghano usange ni sayansi yeneko.[6][134] Nanga kuli nthe, sayansi iyi yikovwira chomene mu sayansi yakuyezgelera. Chiyelezgero, Calculus pakwamba yikapangika kuti yawovwire pa kupulikiska kwenda kwa vinthu mu physics.[135] Sayansi ya chilengiwa na ya kakhaliro ka ŵanthu iyo yikuthemba chomene pa masamu yikasazgapo mathematical physics, chemistry, biology, vyachuma, na economics.[136][137]

Yakugwiliskika pa milimo

Applied science (sayansi yakugwiliskira ntchito) nkhugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za sayansi na kumanya kukhumbikwa kuti munthu wafiske vilato vyakovwira pa umoyo, ndipo yikasazgapo masambiro ghanandi nga ni engineering na vyachipatala (medicine).[138][12]

Engineering nkhugwiliskira ntchito malango gha sayansi pakupanga, kuzenga, na kupanga makina, vinyake vyakuzengeka, na tekinoloje.[139] Sayansi yingawovwira pa kukura kwa tekinoloje yiphya.[140]


Shutterstock Medicine (vyachipatala) nkhupwelelerera ŵalwari mwa kusungilira na kuwezgerapo umoyo wemi kwizira mu kuvikilira, kusanda matenda, na kuchizga vyakuŵinya panji matenda.[141][142]

Yipusu

Sayansi yakugwiliskira ntchito (applied sciences) kanandi yikuŵikika pafupi na sayansi yakwambilira (basic sciences), iyo yikuŵika chomene mahara pa kukuzga fundo za sayansi na malango agho ghakulongosora na kuyowoyerathu vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa.[143][144]

Mtambo wa buluu

Page 'Blue skies research' not found

Yakurangura

Computational science (sayansi ya makompyuta) yikugwiliskira ntchito mapulogiramu ghakuyezgelera pa kompyuta mu sayansi, icho chikupangiska kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha sayansi kuluska umo masamu gha pa pepala ghangafulira. Kugwiliskira ntchito machine learning (masambiro gha makina) na artificial intelligence (nzeru za kupangika na munthu) pasono ni chigaŵa chikuru chomene mu sayansi ya makompyuta, chiyelezgero mu agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modeling na nthowa zakupambanapambana zakuyowoyerathu vyakunthazi.

Nanga kuli nthe, makina paywekha ghakutondeka kusazgirako kumanya chifukwa ghakukhumbikira ulongozgi wa munthu na nzeru yakughanaghana; kweniso ghangamba kuŵa na nkhani ya sankho ku magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu panji nyengo zinyake kugwira ntchito pasi pakuyaniska na ŵanthu.[145][146]

Yakusazgikasazgika

Sayansi ya vigaŵa vyakusazgikana yikusazgapo kusazga masambiro ghaŵiri panji kujumpha kuŵa kamoza,[147] nga ni bioinformatics, iyo ni kusazgikana kwa sayansi ya vyamoyo (biology) na sayansi ya makompyuta[148] panji sayansi ya kaghanaghaniro. fundo iyi yalipo kwamba kale mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki ndipo yikambiraso kumanyikwa chomene mu vyaka vya m’ma 1900 (20th century).[149]

Kafukufuku

Kufufuza kwa sayansi (Scientific research) kungagulika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: kufufuza kwakwamba (basic research) panji kufufuza kwakovwira (applied research). Kufufuza kwakwamba nkhupenja kumanya vinthu, ndipo kufufuza kwakovwira nkhupenja nthowa zakumazgira masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa pakugwiliskira ntchito kumanya uko kwasangika kale. Kumanya vinthu vinandi kukufuma mu kufufuza kwakwamba, nangauli nyengo zinyake kufufuza kwakovwira kukuŵa na chilato cha kumazga suzgbo linalo leneko. Ichi chikupangiska kuti paŵe kukura kwa vyaukatswiri (technology) uko pambere ivi vindachitike vikaŵa vyakusuzga kughanaghanira.[150]

Kachitiro ka Usanthuro

Vinthu 6 vya nthowa ya sayansi mu mzingo
Mndandanda wa nthowa ya sayansi uwo ukulongora kuti ni nthowa yambura kumara

Kufufuza kwa sayansi kukusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya sayansi, iyo yikupenja kulongosora vinthu vya m’chilengiwa mwambura kutemwera ndipo nthowa yake yikuŵa yakuti munyake wangayezgelerapo.[151] Viŵereviŵere, ŵasayansi ŵakugomezga fundo zinyake zakwamba izo zikukhumbikwa kuti nthowa ya sayansi yiŵe yakuzomerezgeka: chilengiwa icho chilipo chikuwoneka mwakuyana kwa waliyose; chilengiwa ichi chikwendeskeka na malango gha chilengiwa; malango agha ghangasangika kupyera mu kuwona vinthu mwadongosolo na kuyezgelera.[2] Masamu (Mathematics) ngakukhumbikwa chomene pakupanga maghanoghano gha sayansi, fundo za sayansi, na malango, chifukwa ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pakupanga vithuzithuzi vya sayansi, kuwona vinthu, na kutora miyeso.[152] Masamu gha maawerengero (Statistics) ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pakudumura na kusanda mauthenga (data), ivyo vikovwira ŵasayansi kumanya usange ivyo ŵasanga mu kuyezgelera vyaŵa vyaunenesko panji yayi.[153]

Mu nthowa ya sayansi, kaghanaghaniro kakulongosora panji "hypothesis" kakupelekeka nga ni nthowa yakulongosolera vinthu pakugwiliskira ntchito fundo yakuti unenesko uŵenge upusu ndipo kakukhazgika kupenja kukolerana na fundo zinyake izo zazomerezgeka kale zakukhwaskana na ivyo vikuwoneka.[154] Kaghanaghaniro aka kakugwiliskirika ntchito pakupanga vinthu ivyo vingayezgeka usange ni vyautesi, ivyo kanandi vikulembeka pambere vindayezgeke na kuyezgelera. Para kaghanaghaniro aka kakana (disproof), uwo uŵa ukaboni wakuti sayansi yikuluta panthazi.[151](pp4–5)[155] Kuyezgelera (Experimentation) nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene mu sayansi kuti kovwire kusanga ubale wa chifukwa na chakuchitika kukhwimiska kuleka kwanika ubudi wa kukolerana kwa vinthu viŵiri, nangauli mu sayansi zinyake nga ni "astronomy" (kusambira nyenyezi) panji "geology" (kusambira malibwe), kulindilira icho chichitikenge kungaŵa kwakwenelera chomene.[156]

Para "hypothesis" yawoneka kuti njambura kukhutiska, yikusinthika panji kutayika. Para "hypothesis" yapona pakuyezgeka, yingazomerezgeka kuŵa mu gulu la fundo ya sayansi, iyo ni nthowa panji chithuzithuzi icho chili na maghanoghano ghakukolerana na ghaunenesko pakulongosora umo vinthu vya chilengiwa vikugwilira ntchito. Fundo ya sayansi (theory) kanandi yikulongosora vinthu vinandi chomene kuluska "hypothesis"; mwa ntheura, "theory" yimoza yingasazga pamoza "hypotheses" zinandi. Mu nthowa yanthena iyi, ma "theory" ghakupangika kuyana na fundo zinandi za sayansi izo zikufuma ku ma "hypothesis". Ŵasayansi ŵangapangaso chithuzithuzi (model), pakuŵikapo mtima kulongosora icho chikuwoneka mu nthowa ya maghanoghano, thupi, panji masamu, na kupanga ma "hypothesis" ghaphya agho ghangayezgeka na kuyezgelera.[157]

Panyengo iyo ŵakuyezgelera kuti ŵawone usange ma "hypothesis" ngaunenesko, ŵasayansi ŵangatemwa kuti pasangike chilato chinyake kuluska chinyake.[158][159] Kuwuskapo kutemwera (bias) kungaŵapo kupyera mu kuyeŵetsera mauthenga, kupanga dongosolo lakuyezgelera lakusamala, na kupyera mu nthowa ya kupenda kwa ŵasayansi ŵanyawo pa ivyo vyasangika. [160][161] Para mauthenga gha chakuyezgelera ghapharazgika, ni kaluso ka ŵakufufuza ŵanyake ŵakujiyimira ŵekha kuti ŵawonepo umo kufufuza uko kukachitikira, na kuchita kuyezgelera kwakuyana kuti ŵawone usange ivyo vyasangika ni vyakugomezgeka.[162] Para vyasazgika vyose, nthowa ya sayansi yikovwira kumazga masuzgo mu nthowa ya luso apo yikuchepeska kutemwera (subjective) na kutemwera ivyo kale munthu wakugomezga.[163] Kuzomerezgeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kung’anamura kachitiro kakuti ŵanthu ŵazomerezgane na kuwelezgapo kuyezgelera, nkhwakuzirwa chomene pakupanga kumanya kose kwa sayansi.[164]

Luso la kulemba

Lemba lakuti "NATURE" lakutozgeka, na malemba gha sayansi kusi kwake
Chivundikiro cha magazini yakwamba ya Nature, 4 Novemba 1869

Kufufuza kwa sayansi kukupharazgika mu mitundu yakupambanapambana ya mabuku na malemba.[165] Magazini gha sayansi ghakuphalira na kusunga ivyo vyasangika mu kufufuza uko kukuchitika mu ma yunivesite na malo ghanyake ghakufufuzirako, ndipo ghakovwira nga ni nthambala yakusungirako mdauko wa sayansi. Magazini ghakwamba gha sayansi, Journal des sçavans kulondezgana na Philosophical Transactions, ghakayamba kupharazgika mu chaka cha 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, chiŵerengero cha magazini agha chakula chomene. Mu 1981, pakaŵa kulingalira kuti chiŵerengero cha magazini gha sayansi na vyaukatswiri chikaŵa pafupifupi 11,500.[166]

Magazini ghanandi gha sayansi ghakusambira chigaŵa chimoza pera cha sayansi ndipo ghakupharazga kufufuza kwa mu chigaŵa icho; kufufuza uku kanandi kukuŵa mu nthowa ya pepara la sayansi. Sayansi yazara chomene mu umoyo wa mazuŵa gano mwakuti ntchakukhumbikwa kuphalira ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo ŵasayansi ŵasanga, nkhani ziphya, na vilato vyawo.[167]

Visuzgo

Suzgo la kuwelezgapo ni suzgo ilo lilipo lero mu nthowa zakufufuzira ilo likukhwaska vigaŵa vya sayansi ya ŵanthu (social science) na sayansi ya vyamoyo (life science). Mu kufufuza kunyake, vyasangika kuti vinthu vinandi ivyo vikasangika mu masambiro gha sayansi vingawelezgekaposo yayi.[168] Suzgo ili liri na misinthu yakale; lizgu ili likayamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m’ma 2010[169] panyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakamba kumanya za suzgo ili. Suzgo la kuwelezgapo ni chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha kufufuza mu metascience, icho chilato chake nkhunozga mikhaliro ya kufufuza kose kwa sayansi na kuchepeska kutaya nyengo na chuma.[170]

Chigaŵa cha sambiro icho chikujizgora kuŵa sayansi na chilato chakuti chiŵe chakuzomerezgeka apo ntheura yayi, nyengo zinyake chikuchemeka sayansi yaboza, sayansi ya mumphepete, panji sayansi yawakawaka.[171][172] Wasayansi wa vya thupi (Physicist) Richard Feynman wakapanga lizgu lakuti "cargo cult science" ku vigaŵa ivyo ŵakufufuza ŵakugomezga ndipo pakuwona vikuŵa nga ŵakuchita sayansi, kweni ŵalije unenesko wakuti ivyo ŵasanga vipendeke mwakusamala.[173] Malonda yakupambanapambana yangawikika mu vigaŵa ivi. Sayansi yalongosoreka nga ni "chiŵiya chakuzirwa chomene" pakupatura unenesko ku utesi.[174]

Pangasoŵavye kutemwera kwa ndyali (political bias) panji kaghanaghaniro kanyake mu madumbo gha sayansi. Nyengo zinyake, kufufuza kungachemeka "sayansi yiheni", kufufuza uko kungaŵa na chilato chiwemi kweni nkhwakubudika, nkhwakale, nkhwambura kukwana, panji nkhwakulongosora vinthu mwambura kunozga. Lizgu lakuti kunanga kwa sayansi likunena za nyengo izo ŵakufufuza ŵapusika mwadala mauthenga ghawo panji ŵapeleka malumbo kwa munthu uyo wandasangepo chinthu icho.[175]

Luso la kusanda

Chithuzithuzi cha epicycles, umo pulaneti likuzingilira mu mzingo ukuru
Kuyana na Thomas Kuhn, kusazgirako ma epicycles mu sayansi ya nyenyezi ya Ptolemy kukaŵa "sayansi yaazuŵa nalo" (normal science), apo Copernican Revolution kukaŵa kusintha kukuru kwa kaghanaghaniro (paradigm shift).

Pali maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana mu Luso la kusanda la sayansi. Kaghanaghaniro kakumanyikwa chomene ni empiricism, ako kakuti kumanya vinthu kukupangika kupyera mu kuwona (observation); fundo za sayansi zikudumura ivyo vyawoneka.[176] Empiricism kanandi yikusazgapo inductivism, kaghanaghaniro ako kakulongosora umo fundo zikuru zingapangikira kufuma ku ukaboni uchoko uwo ulipo. Pali mitundu yinandi ya empiricism, ndipo yakuzirwa chomene ni Bayesianism na hypothetico-deductive method.[177][176]

Empiricism yikupambana na rationalism, kaghanaghaniro ako pakwamba kakavikiliwa na Descartes, ako kakuti kumanya vinthu kukupangika na mahala gha munthu, osati mwa kuwona.[178] Critical rationalism ni nthowa yinyake ya sayansi ya mu vyaka vya m’ma 1900, iyo pakwamba yikalongosoreka na filosofi wa ku Austria na Britain Karl Popper. Popper wakakana umo empiricism yikulongosolera kukolerana pakati pa fundo (theory) na kuwona (observation). Wakati fundo zikupangika na kuwona yayi, kweni kuwona kukuchitika pakuŵa na fundo mu mutu, ndipo nthowa yimoza pera iyo fundo A yingakhwaskikira na kuwona nkhwakuti fundo A yisuskane na kuwona, kweni fundo B yipone pakususkana uko.[179]

Popper wakapeleka fundo yakuti "verifiability" (unenesko wakusimikizga) isinthike na falsifiability (unenesko wakuyezgeka usange mbutesi) nga ni chimanyikwiro cha fundo za sayansi. Popper wakatiso pali nthowa yimoza pera yapadziko lonse, osati ya sayansi pera: nthowa ya kusanda, kuyezga na kubudika,[180] iyo yikukhwaska vyose ivyo mahala gha munthu ghapanga, kusazgapo sayansi, masamu, filosofi, na luso (art).[181]

Nthowa yinyake, instrumentalism, yikulongora kuzirwa kwa fundo za sayansi nga ni vilwero vya kulongosolera na kulosera vinthu. Yikuwona fundo za sayansi nga ni mabokosi ghakufipa (black boxes), apo ivyo vikunjiramo (mukhaliro wakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (vilosero) ndivyo ni vyakuzirwa. Ivyo vikuchitika mukati mwa fundo yingawoneka nga ni vinthu ivyo vingasulika.[182] Pafupi na instrumentalism pali constructive empiricism, iyo yikuti chipimo chikuru cha kutonda kwa fundo ya sayansi nkhwakuti usange icho yikuyowoya pa vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka ni chaunenesko.[183]

Thomas Kuhn wakachita kukana kuti kachitiro kakulaŵiska na kupima vinthu kakuchitika mukati mwa "paradigm", chithuzithuzi chakukolerana cha charu icho chikukolerana na ivyo vikuwoneka. Wakalongosora normal science nga ni kachitiro ka kuwona na "kumazga vyakufumbika", uko kukuchitika mukati mwa paradigm, apo revolutionary science yikuchitika para paradigm yimoza yatonda yinyake mu kusintha kwa kaghanaghaniro.[184] Paradigm yiliyose yiri na mafumbo ghake, vilato, na malongosolero ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ma paradigm kukusazgapo kuŵika vithuzithuzi viŵiri panji kujumpha pamaso pa charu na kusankha icho chikulongora makora unenesko. Kusintha kwa kaghanaghaniro kukuchitika para pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuwoneka ivyo vikususkana na paradigm yakale ndipo paradigm yiphya yikulongosora makora vinthu ivi. Kwa Kuhn, kuzomera panji kukana paradigm ni kachitiro ka ŵanthu kukhala lumoza kuyana na umo kuliri kachitiro ka maghanoghano. Kweni kaghanaghaniro ka Kuhn nkhwa relativism yayi.[185]

Nthowa yinyake iyo kanandi yikuzunulika mu madumbo gha kukayikira sayansi kwimikana na magulu nga ni "creation science" ni methodological naturalism. Ŵanthu agha ŵakusimikizga kuti pakuŵe kupambana pakati pa vinthu vya chilengiwa na vyakuzizwitsa, ndipo sayansi yikwenera kuŵa pa malongosolero gha chilengiwa pera.[186] Methodological naturalism yikusimikizga kuti sayansi yikukhumbikwa kulondezga chomene masambiro gha ukaboni wakuwoneka na kusimikizga kwakujiyimira kwekha.[187]

Chikaya

Chikaya cha sayansi ni gulu la ŵasayansi awo ŵakukolerana na kuchita kufufuza kwa sayansi. Gulu ili lilina magulu ghang’onoghang’ono agho ghakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya sayansi. Kupdera mu kupenda kwa ŵanyawo, na mu nthowa ya kudumbiskana mu magazini na maungano, ŵasayansi ŵakusungilira mukhaliro wa nthowa zakufufuzira na kuleka kutemwera panyengo yakulongosora ivyo vyasangika.[188]

Ŵausanthuro

Portrait of a middle-aged woman
Marie Curie wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kupokera vyawanangwa viŵiri vya Nobel: Physics mu 1903 na Chemistry mu 1911.[101]

Ŵausanthuro ni ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kufufuza kwa sayansi kuti ŵasazgireko kumanya vinthu mu chigaŵa icho ŵakuchitemwa.[189][190] Ŵasayansi ŵangalongora mtima wa kukhumba kumanya vinandi vyakukhwaskana na chilengiwa ndipo ŵangakhumba kugwiliskira ntchito sayansi kovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyaru, chilengiwa, panji mafakitale; vifukwa vinyake ni kukhumba kumanyikwa na ŵanyawo na uchindami. Mu nyengo yithu muno, ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakusambira vigaŵa vyeneko vya sayansi mu masukulu gha masambiro ghapachanya, ndipo kanandi ŵakusanga madigiri ghapachanya mu kachitiro aka.[191] Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni mu masukulu, mafakitale, boma, na magulu ghambura kupenja phindu.

Kufuma kale, sayansi yaŵa chigaŵa icho chazara na ŵanalume, nangauli paliso ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa. Ŵanakazi ŵasangana na kusankhula kukuru mu sayansi, nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya ŵanthu uko ŵanalume ndivyo ŵakulongozga. Kwa chiyelezgero, ŵanakazi kanandi ŵakaŵamananga mwaŵi wa ntchito na kuleka kubaŵikapo mtima pa ntchito yawo.[192] Ivyo ŵanakazi mu sayansi ŵatonda kukwaniska vyambika chifukwa cha kukana kuŵa waka ŵantchito ŵa pakhomo.[193]

Mawupu ya ŵakusambira

Ŵasayansi pa chaka cha 200 cha Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1900

Mawupu ya ŵakusambira yakuphalizgana na kukhuŵilizga kaghanaghaniro ka sayansi na kuyezgelera yaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya "Renaissance".[194] Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mbamoza mwa gulu la masambiro ilo likukhuŵilizga chigaŵa chawo cha sayansi, ntchito yawo, panji gulu la masambiro ghakuyana.[195] Umo munthu wakuŵira chiŵalo kungakuŵa kwakujulika kwa waliyose, panji munthu wakhumbikwenge kuŵa na masambiro gha sayansi, panji mwakusankhika. Magulu ghanandi gha sayansi ni magulu ghambura kupenja phindu,[196] ndipo ghanandi ni magulu gha ntchito. Milimo yawo kanandi yikusazgapo kuchita maungano pafupipafupi ghakulongosora na kudumbiskana ivyo vyasangika mu kufufuza kuphya na kupharazga magazini gha masambiro mu chigaŵa chawo.

Kuzgora sayansi kuŵa ntchito ya katswiri, uko kukayamba mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, kukawovwirika na kupangika kwa ma akademiki gha sayansi gha vyaru nga ni Accademia dei Lincei ya ku Italy mu 1603,[197] Royal Society ya ku Britain mu 1660,[198] French Academy of Sciences mu 1666,[199] National Academy of Sciences ya ku America mu 1863,[200] Kaiser Wilhelm Society ya ku Germany mu 1911,[201] na Chinese Academy of Sciences mu 1949.[202] Magulu gha sayansi gha pa charu chose, nga ni International Science Council, ghakuŵikapo mtima pa kukolerana kwa vyaru vyose pakukhuŵilizga sayansi.[203]

Vyawanangwa

Vyawanangwa vya sayansi kanandi vikupelekeka kwa munthu panji gulu ilo lachita chinthu chakuzirwa chomene mu chigaŵa chinyake cha sayansi. Kanandi vikupelekeka na mawupu ghachindami; mwa ntheura, chikuŵa chinthu cha uchindami ukuru kwa wasayansi uyo wapokera chawanangwa ichi. Kufuma mu nyengo ya "Renaissance", ŵasayansi kanandi ŵaveleka mendulo, ndalama, na vithu vinyake vya uchindami. Chawanangwa cha Nobel (Nobel Prize), icho ntchakumanyikwa chomene pa charu chose, chikupelekeka chaka chilichose kwa awo ŵachita vinthu vinyake vyapachanya mu vigaŵa vya munkhwala (medicine), physics, na chemistry.[204]

Ubali

Kusanga ndalama na malango

see caption
Bajeti ya NASA pakuŵa chigaŵa pa 100 cha bajeti ya boma la United States, iyo yikafika pachanya chomene pa 4.4% mu 1966 ndipo yikukhilira pasi pachoko na pachoko kufuma nyengo iyo

Kupeleka ndalama za sayansi kanandi kukuchitika kwendera mu nthowa ya kuphalizgana umo mapulojekiti agho ghakuŵa na chilato chiwemi ndigho ghakupokera ndalama. Kachitiro aka, ako kakwendeskeka na boma, makampani, panji mawupu ghakovwira, kakugaŵa ndalama izo zikuŵa zichoko. Ndalama zose zakufufuzira mu vyaru ivyo vyatukuka zili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya GDP yawo.[205] Mu vyaru vya OECD, pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri pa vitu (two-thirds) vya ntchito yakufufuza na kunozga vinthu mu sayansi na vyaukatswiri vikuchitika na makampani, ndipo 20% na 10% vikuchitika na ma yunivesite na boma. Ndalama izo boma likupeleka mu vigaŵa vinyake zikuŵa zinandi chomene, chomenechomene mu sayansi ya ŵanthu (social science) na masambiro gha vya ŵanthu (humanities). Mu vyaru ivyo vindatukuke chomene, boma ndilo likupeleka ndalama zinandi za kufufuza kwa sayansi kwakwamba.[206]

Maboma ghanandi ghali na mawupu ghake ghakovwira kufufuza kwa sayansi, nga ni National Science Foundation ya ku United States,[207] National Scientific and Technical Research Council ya ku Argentina,[208] na gha mu vyaru vinyake nga ni Australia, France, Germany, na Spain. Mu makampani ghakuguliska vinthu, kufufuza kukuŵa na chilato cha kupanga malonda gha mazuŵa gano kuluska kukhutiska waka khumbiro la kumanya vinthu.[209]

Ndondomeko ya sayansi (Science policy) yikukhwaskana na malango agho ghakukhwaska umo ntchito ya sayansi yikwendera, kusazgapo kupeleka ndalama, kanandi pakuŵa na vilato vinyake vya boma nga nkhupanga vyaukatswiri viphya (technological innovation) kuti malonda yakule, kupanga vilwero, vyachipatala, na kulaŵilira chilengiwa. Nyengo zinyake ndondomeko iyi yikusantha umo sayansi yingawovwilira pa kupanga malango gha boma. Pakuti malango gha boma ghakukhwaskana na mukhaliro wa ŵanthu, chilato cha ndondomeko ya sayansi nkhulaŵiska umo sayansi na vyaukatswiri vingawovwilira makora ŵanthu.[210] Malango gha boma ghangakhwaska ndalama zakugulira vyakuŵiya vya ntchito na kuzenga nthambala ya mahala ya makampani pakunozga malango gha msonkho ku mawupu agho ghakupeleka ndalama za kufufuzira.[167]

Masambiro na kumanyiska

Chiwoneskero cha dinosaur ku Houston Museum of Natural Science

Masambiro gha sayansi kwa ŵanthu wose ghakusangika mu ndondomeko ya masambiro ya ku sukulu, ndipo ghakusazgirikapo na mauthenga gha pa intaneti (kwa chiyelezgero, YouTube na Khan Academy), nyumba zakusungirako vinthu vyakale (museums), na magazini gha sayansi. Mawupu ghakuru gha ŵasayansi nga ni AAAS ghakuwona sayansi kuŵa chigaŵa cha masambiro ghakumasula (liberal arts) pamoza na filosofi na mdauko.[211] Kumanya vya sayansi kukukhwaskana chomene na kupulikiska nthowa ya sayansi, miyeso na nthowa za kupima vinthu, ukaboni wakuwoneka, kumanya masamu gha "statistics", na kumanya vigaŵa vyakuzirwa vya sayansi nga ni physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, na computation. Panyengo iyo mwana akuluta ku masambiro ghapachanya, masambiro agha ghakusazgika chomene. Masambiro gha mu sukulu kanandi ghakuŵa na sayansi ya chilengiwa (natural sciences) na sayansi yakudumura (formal sciences), nangauli mu nyengo zino sayansi ya ŵanthu na sayansi yakovwira nazo zasazgikamo.[212]

Wayilesi na manyuzipepara vikusangana na masuzgo agho ghangatondeska kulongosora makora fundo za sayansi izo zikususkana kuyana na umo ziliri zakugomezgeka mu gulu la ŵasayansi. Kumanya nthemu iyo ungapeleka ku chigaŵa chilichose mu dumbo la sayansi kukukhumbikwa mahala ghanandi pa nkhani iyo.[213] Ŵatola-nkhani ŵachoko pera ndiwo ŵali na kumanya kwa sayansi kwaunenesko, ndipo nanga ŵatola-nkhani awo ŵakumanya vigaŵa vinyake vya sayansi ŵangazakaŵa ŵambura kumanya pa nkhani zinyake izo ŵapempheka kuti ŵazichite mwamabuchibuchi.[214][215]

Magazini gha sayansi nga ni New Scientist, Science & Vie, na Scientific American ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi na kupeleka chidule chambura vyakusuzga pa vigaŵa vya kufufuza, kusazgapo vinthu vyakuzizwitsa ivyo vyasangika. Sayansi ya mu mabuku (science fiction) nayo yingapeleka maghanoghano na nthowa za sayansi kwa ŵanthu wose.[216] Kuyezgelera kwa sonosono apa kwa kusazga sayansi na vigaŵa vinyake nga ni malemba gha "literature" panji ndakatulo kwasazgika na mawupu ghakupambanapambana.[217]

Nkharo za kukwesana na usanthuro

Nangauli nthowa ya sayansi njakuzomerezgeka na ŵasayansi ŵanandi, vigaŵa vinyake vya ŵanthu vikukana fundo zinyake za sayansi panji kukayikira sayansi. Viyelezgero ni kaghanaghaniro kakuti COVID-19 nthenda yakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agho ŵanthu 39 pa 100 ŵali nawo mu Ogasiti 2021)[218] panji kugomezga kuti kusintha kwa nyengo nkhwakofya yayi ku US (ŵanthu 40 pa 100, kuumaliro wa 2019 na kukwamba kwa 2020).[219] Ŵasayansi ŵa kaghanaghaniro (Psychologists) ŵalongora vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska ŵanthu kukana sayansi:[220]

Ŵalara ŵa sayansi nyengo zinyake ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura kumanya ntchito, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji ŵakutemwera.

Magulu gha ŵanthu agho ghali kusulika ghangaŵa na maghanoghano ghakususkana na sayansi, chifukwa chakuti kale magulu agha ghakachitikirapo vinthu viheni mu vilingerero vya sayansi vyambura unenesko.[221]

Mauthenga kufuma kwa ŵasayansi ghangasuskana na vigomezgo vya makhaliro panji chisopa ivyo munthu wali navyo chomene.

Marongosolero gha uthenga wa sayansi ghangaŵa kuti ghandanozgeke makora kuyana na umo munthu uyo wakupulika wakusambira. Kaghanaghaniro kakususkana na sayansi kanandi kakupangika na wofi wakukanika na magulu gha ŵanthu. Kwa chiyelezgero, kusintha kwa nyengo (climate change) kukuwoneka nga nkhofya kwa ŵanthu 22 pa 100 pera ku chigaŵa cha "right" mu ndyali za ku US, kweni ku chigaŵa cha "left" ŵali 85 pa 100.[222] Chakuchitika ntchakuti, ŵanthu ŵangazomera kukana unenesko wa sayansi m’malo mwakuti ŵataye udindo wawo mu gulu la ŵanthu.[223]

=== Politics ===

Result in bar graph showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans
Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa nkhani ya kutuŵa kwa charu (global warming) ku United States kuyana na vipani vya ndyali[224]

Kaghanaghaniro pa nkhani ya sayansi kanandi kakutolera pa maghanoghano gha ndyali na vilato vyawo. Maboma, mabizinesi na magulu ghakovwira ŵanthu (advocacy groups) ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito dango na chuma kuti ŵachichizge ŵasayansi awo ŵakufufuza. Vinthu vinandi vingapangiska kuti sayansi yisazgike na ndyali nga nkhususkana na masambiro ghapachanya (anti-intellectualism), kuwona sayansi nga nkhofya ku vigomezgo vya chisopa, na wofi wakwananga bizinesi.[225] Kusazga sayansi na ndyali kanandi kukuchitika pakupeleka mauthenga gha sayansi mu nthowa yakulongora kuti pali kukayikira pa ukaboni wa sayansi.[226] Nthowa zakusintha nkhani, kuleka kuzomera unenesko, na kugwiliskira ntchito kukayikira kwa ŵasayansi (scientific consensus) zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵanthu ŵalaŵiske pa maghanoghano agho sayansi yalongora kale kuti mbutesi.[227] Viyelezgero vya nkhani izo zasazgikapo ndyali ni kusintha kwa nyengo (global warming controversy), uheni wa munkhwala wakukoma viboyo (pesticides), na uheni wa hona (tobacco).[227][228]

Bekaniso

Mndandanda wa ntchito za sayansi

Mndandanda wa vyaka mu sayansi

Sayansi (Wikiversity)

Unenesko wa sayansi

  1. ↑ Wilson, E. O. (1999). "The natural sciences". Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (Reprint ed.). New York: Vintage. pp. 49–71. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8.
  2. 1 2 Heilbron, J. L.; et al. (2003). "Preface". The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–x. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. ...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions.
  3. 1 2 Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic activity". The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century. New York: Routledge. pp. 14–41. ISBN 978-0-367-56298-4. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Colander, David C.; Hunt, Elgin F. (2019). "Social science and its methods". Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society (17th ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 1–22.
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  6. 1 2 Bishop, Alan (1991). "Environmental activities and mathematical culture". Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education. Norwell, MA: Kluwer. pp. 20–59. ISBN 978-0-7923-1270-3. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
  7. ↑ Bunge, Mario (1998). "The Scientific Approach". Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory. Vol. 1 (revised ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 3–50. ISBN 978-0-7658-0413-6.
  8. 1 2 Fetzer, James H. (2013). "Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems". Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines. Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer. pp. 271–308. ISBN 978-1-4438-1946-6.
  9. ↑ Nickles, Thomas (2013). "The Problem of Demarcation". Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. p. 104.
  10. ↑ Fischer, M. R.; Fabry, G (2014). "Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education". GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung. 31 (2): Doc24. doi:10.3205/zma000916. PMC 4027809. PMID 24872859.
  11. ↑ Sinclair, Marius (1993). "On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods". The International Journal of Engineering Education. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  12. 1 2 Bunge, M. (1966). "Technology as Applied Science". In Rapp, F. (ed.). Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 19–39. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2. ISBN 978-94-010-2184-5. S2CID 110332727.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
  14. 1 2 Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 978-0-521-68957-1.
  15. ↑ Building Bridges Among the BRICs Archived 18 Epulelo 2023 at the Wayback Machine, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014
  16. ↑ Keay, John (2000). India: A history. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2. The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden.
  17. ↑ Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. Pages 80–81 Archived 27 Ogasiti 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 6 October 2023
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  1. ↑ Kasi chilengiwa ntchakujalika panji ntchakujulika, panji mukhaliro wa chilengiwa (shape of the universe), ni fumbo ilo lichali kuyanulika. Dango lachiŵiri la thermodynamics,[97]:9[98] na dango lachitatu la thermodynamics[99] vikupeleka fundo ya heat death of the universe usange chilengiwa chili nga ni chinthu chakujalika, kweni ni ntheura yayi usange chilengiwa chikutandambuka.
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