Kasanthulo

Sintha malink
Kufuma Wikipedia
(Kufumila ku Sayansi)

 

Timeline of the Universe from Big Bang to present
Umo Ulengiwa ukaŵira mu nyengo zakupambana mwakukolerana na Fundo Ya Kutandazga, nga umo tikumanyira kufuma ku mlimo wa kusanthula

Kasanthulo (Sayansi) ni mlimo wambula sankho, wambula kumala, uwo ukuzenga na kusanja umanyi kuti uŵe mu kaŵiro ka vya kulongosola ivyo vingapimika na vya kuloska vyokhwaska Ulengiwa.

Kasanthulo kanandi kakugaŵika patatu mu nthavi zikulu: Kasanthulo ka ulengiwa (nthe., Kasanthulo ka umoyo, Kasanthulo ka usungunu, na Kasanthulo ka kogodoboka ), Ivi vikuŵazga Ulengiwa wakaŵiro; kasanthuro ka unthu(nthe., kasanthuro ka chuma, kasanthuro ka wongo, na kasanthuro ka ubali), iyo yikuŵazga ŵanthu na vikaya; na kasanthuro ka ndondomeko (nthe., mahara, samuzi, na fundo za kasanthuro ka chipendeskero), izo zikuŵazga mikorano ya ndondomeko, yakulamulika na ma aksiyomu na malango. Pali kususkana kuti pala kasanthuro ka ndondomeko ni milimo ya kasanthuro nadi, chifukwa yakugomezga ukaboni chara. Kasanthuro ka kugwiliskika ni milimo yogwiliska umanyi wa kasanthuro pa milimo ya vizirwa, nthe mu uzengi na munkhara.

Vilembamo vyakudanga vya Kasanthuro ka mwaka ako kakuyana na kasanthuro ka lero kakufuma ku Eguputo na Mesopotamiya kufuma vilimika vya m'ma 3000 m'paka 1200 B.C.E. Ivyo ŵakasambira pa makani ya kasanthuro ka samuzi, Ulengiwa wa m'mtambo, na Kasanthuro ka Munkhwala vikanjira na kuwumba Kasanthuro ka Unjeru wa Ulengiwa wa Chigiriki uwo ukachitikanga mu nyengo za mwaka, ndipo mwantheura kukayezgeka mwa ndondomeko kulongosola ivyo vikuchitika mu Ulengiwa wa kukhoma kutolela vyakupangiska vyamuulengiwaso vyakupimika. Mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya vyaka vyapakati pa 400 na 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakatondeka kupulikiska maghanoghano gha Ŵagiriki. Ndipouli, mu nyengo ya Chisilamu, ŵasambizgi Ŵachigiriki ŵa ku Byzantium ŵakalimbikira chomene kuti ŵasungilire vinjeru vya Ŵagiriki. Ŵakafika na mipukutu ya Cigiriki kufuma ku Ufumu wa Byzantium uwo ukambininika mu Nyengo ya Kungweruka.

Kwambira mu 100 C.E. m'paka mu 13 C.E., mabuku gha Chigiriki na visambizgo vya chisopa cha Chiisilamu vikafika mu vyaru vya ku Western Europe. Ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti paŵe kusintha kwa sayansi uko kukamba mu ma 1500. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusanga vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapambana na ivyo Ŵagiriki ŵakagomezganga. Nthowa ya sayansi yikamba kuŵa yakuzirwa comene pakusambizga ŵanthu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, sayansi yikamba kuŵa na nkharo ya ŵanthu, ndipo lizgu lakuti "nthanthi" likasintha kuŵa "nthanthi".

Kasanthuro ka mazuŵa ghano yikugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: Kasanthuro ka Ulengiwa (nga ni Kusanthura Umoyo, Kusanthura visungunu na Kusanthura magobodero), mbwe iyo yiKusanda Charu chakukhoma; Kusanthura kwa ukhaliro gha ŵanthu (nthe Kasanthuro ka chuma, Kasanthuro ka vya Wongo, na Kasanthuro ka vya Umunthu); mbwe agho ghakusanthura ŵanthu na vyaru, kweniso masanthuriro gha kundondomeka (nthe kasanthuro ka vyamahara, kasanthuro ka vya samuzi, na kasanthuro ka fundo zambula kukhoma za kusanthuro ka Chipendeskero-Chilala), ivyo kukusanda Mikorano ya kundondomeka pamoza na malango na ma'akishomu ghagho.. Pali kususkana pala visanthuro vya kundondomeka ni visanthuro nadi, chifukwa yikuthemba pa ukaboni wa vinthu yayi.[1] Kasanthuro kakukhoma ni visandiro ivyo vikukugwilira ntchito vinjeru vya kusanthura pa milimo ya kukhoma, nga ni ku Uzengi na munkhwala.

Umanyi uphya mu kasanthuro ukwiza na kafukufuku kufuma ku ŵakasanthuro aŵo ŵakuŵa na chirato chakumanya vya Charu na khumbo la kunozga masuzgo. Kafukufuku wa kasanthuro wa mazuŵa ghano wakovwira chomene ŵanthu ndipo kanandi wakuchitika na magulu gha ŵasayansi, maboma, na makampani. Ntchito yawo yawovwira kuti paŵe ndondomeko za sayansi izo zikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasambire vinthu vya sayansi mwa kuŵika pakwamba vinthu vya makhaliro ghawemi, vya malonda, vya vilwero, vya umoyo, vya boma, na vya chilengiwa.

Mbiri la lizgo

Lizgu lakuti sayansi likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu Chingelezi chapakati m'ma 1400. Lizgu ili likung'anamura "kumanya". Lizgu ili lili kufuma ku chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman ndipo lili na msisi wakuti -cience, ilo lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti scientia, kung'anamura "kumanya, kumanya, kupulikiska". Lizgu ili lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti sciens, ilo likung'anamura "kumanya", ndipo likufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti sciō, lizgu lakuti scīre, ilo likung'anamura "kumanya".

Pali vigomezgo vyakupambana vyakukhwaskana na uko kuli kufuma lizgu lakuti sayansi. Fundo yimoza njakuti vingaŵa kuti vikamba mu ciyowoyero ico cikucemeka Proto-Italic nga ni *skije- panji *skijo-, ico cikung'anamura "kumanya". Lizgu ili likwenera kuti likafuma ku chiyowoyero chinyake chakale chomene chakuchemeka Proto-Indo-European. Fundo yinyake njakuti lizgu lakuti "sayansi" likwenera kuti likafuma ku lizgu linyake lakuti "nescire", ilo likung'anamura "kumanya yayi". Lizgu lakuti "nescire" likwenera kuti lili kufuma ku chiyowoyero cha Indo-European nga ni *sekH- mu Chilatini "secare", kung'anamura "kudumura".

Kale, Sayansi (kusanthura) yikaŵa lizgu ilo likang'anamuranga "kumanya" panji "kusambira", mwakuyana na umo likambira mu Chilatini. Munthu uyo wakachitanga kafukufuku wa kusanthura wakachemekanga "munthu wavinjeru vya kasanthuro". Mu 1834, William Whewell wakambiska mazgu ghakuti "waKasanthuro" mu buku lakhe lakusanda buku la Mary Somerville lakuti On the Connection of the Physical Sciences, ndipo wakalemba kuti "munthu munyake wavinjeru" (uyu panji akaŵa iyo mwene).

Mbiri

 

Mbiri yakudanga

 

Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals
Pa libwe la Plimpton 322 ilo likalembeka na Ŵababuloni, pakalembeka vinthu vitatu vya Pythagoras, ivyo vikalembeka mu 1800 B.C.E.

Kasanthuro kukamba na munthu yumoza yayi. Kweni nthowa zakwendera vinthu zikawoneka pachoko na pachokopachoko mu vyaka vinandi, ndipo vichoko pela ndivyo vikumanyikwa vya Kasanthuro kwa mwaka. Mu nyengo yakale, ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito yikuru chomene pa makani gha kasanthuro, nga umo vikaŵira na mipingo. Ŵakasanthuro ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghakuti "proto-science" kuti ŵalongosore vinthu ivyo vikachitikanga kale ivyo vikuyana waka na Kasanthuro ka mazuŵa ghano, kweni vyose yayi. Kweni ŵanthu ŵakususka kuti vinthu ivi vikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita.

Apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vinthu mu vyaru vyakale nga ni Eguputo na Mesopotamiya (pakati pa 3000 na 1200 B.C.E.), tikamba kusanga ukaboni wakulongora kuti vinthu vikachitikanga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakale ŵa ku Eguputo na Mesopotamiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito yayi mazgu ghakuti "Kasanthuro" na "chilengiwa", kweni ŵakachita vinandi kuti ŵasambizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na ku Middle Ages. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso chomene pa nkhani ya masamu, sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga, na munkhwala.

Mwachiyelezgero, Ŵaeguputo ŵakwambilira ŵakamba kuŵerenga manambara kufuma pa 10 B.C.E., ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito masamu kuti ŵamazge masuzgo. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito minkhwala yakuchizgira na vinthu vyamasalamusi nga ni malurombo. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ndiwo ŵakambiska Kasanthuro iyo yikalutilira kukura.[2][2] 

Ŵanthu ŵakele ŵaku Mesopotamiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito umanyi wa maunenesko gha visungunu vyakupambanapambana kuti ŵapangire vinthu nga ni vyakuumba, faience, gilasi, sopo, visulo, plastara wa lime, na kuvikilila vinthu kwa maji. Ŵakasambiranga vya nyama, umo vikuŵira, nkharo, na nyenyezi kuti ŵamanye ivyo vikuchitika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mesopotamiya ŵakakhumbanga chomene vya munkhwala ndipo mabuku ghakwambilira gha munthavi gha mu Sumeria ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya ufumu wachitatu wa Uri.[3][3]

Nyengo za mwaka

Framed mosaic of philosophers gathering around and conversing
Pa chithuzithuzi cha Plato, icho wakalemba pakati pa 100 B.C.E. na 79 C.E., pali vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵavinjeru ŵa ku Greece.

Mu nyengo yakale, pakaŵavya munthu uyo wakaŵa wasayansi wa mazuŵa ghano. M'malo mwake, ŵanthu ŵakusambira chomene, awo kanandi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa, ŵakasambiranga vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya chilengiwa para ŵali na nyengo.

Pambere ŵasayansi awo ŵakaŵa pambere Socrates wandababike ŵandambe kuyowoya kuti "phusis" panji "chilengiwa", mazgu agha ghakayowoyanga za kukura kwa vyakumera na mitheto ya fuko linyake pakusopa chiuta. Lekani ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuŵa na vinjeru vyaunenesko, chifukwa ndiwo ŵakamba kupambaniska pakati pa "chilengiwa" na "malango". Ŵakawonanga na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikucitika mu cilengiwa ndipo ŵakamanya kuti vikupambana na mitheto ya ŵanthu.

Ŵaunjeru ŵakudanga ŵa ku Greece ŵa Kwamasambiro kwa Milesian, iyo yikamba na Thales wa ku Miletus ndipo pamanyuma yikalutilira na awo ŵaka hara udindo wakhe, Anaximander na Anaxymenes, ndiwo ŵakamba kulongosora vya ulengiwa kwambura kugomezga pa vyauzimu. Ŵina pythagora ŵakasambira fundo yakupambanapambana ya manambala: 467 ⁇ 68 ndipo ŵakamba kovwira chomene sayansi ya masamu. 465 Munthu munyake wakuchemeka Democritus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wa Chigiriki, ndiyo wakambiska fundo iyi.[4] Pamanyuma, Epicurus wakamba kulemba fundo zakukhwaskana na vinthu vya mu mlengalenga izo zikukolerana na fundo za sayansi. Hippocrates, dokotala wa ku Greece, ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vyamankhwala ndipo ndiyo wakucemeka "Wiske wa Munkhwara".

Socrates wakawovwira chomene pakusambizga vinjeru vya ŵanthu pakulongora umo vinjeru vya ŵanthu vingawovwilira ŵanthu kupulikiska vinthu nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira, ndyali, na umanyi. Wakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyo yikumanyikwa kuti Socratic method, iyo yikusazgapo kufumba mafumbo na kudumbiskana maghanoghano kuti wasange mazgoro ghawemi. M'malo mwa kughanaghana waka, Socrates wakagomezganga kuti fundo izo zikususkana zikwenera kuwuskikapo. Wakayowoyaso kuti nthowa yakale yakusambilira sayansi njakudumura ndipo njambura kupulikikwa makora. [5] [6]

Aristotle mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., wakambiska ndondomeko yakulongosora vyakukhoma vya luso la ŵakasanthuro. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 P.K., Wakusanda Mlengalenga, Aristarchus wa ku Samos, uyo wakaŵa wakwamba kulongosola ulengiwa na chiyezgero cha cha heliocentric ilo likulongosola kuti zuŵa ndilo lili pakati pa Vyaru vyose ivi vikulizingilila. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakana fundo ya Aristarchus chifukwa ŵakagomezganga kuti yikususkana na malango gha fizika, apo buku la Ptolemy lakuti Almagest, ilo lili na ndondomeko ya ku malo gha dazi, likapokeka mu nyengo ya Renaissance.[7] Munthu munyake uyo wakalemba mabuku na masamu, Archimedes wa ku Syracuse, wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya masimu. Pliny Mukuru wakaŵa mulembi wa Ŵaroma kweniso wasayansi wa vya sayansi, ndipo wakalemba buku la Natural History.

Kalembero kakutolela malo, ghakwimilila vipendero ghakawoneka kakwamba pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 500 C.E. mu vipata vya malonda vya ku India. Uŵerengero uwu ukapangiska kuti samuzi za arithimeti ziŵe zakupulikikwa makora ndipo pamanyuma zikaŵa zakovwira chomene pa samuzi charu chose.

Viwiro vyapakati

Picture of a peacock on very old paper
Pa peji lakwamba la buku la Viennese Dioscurides pali cithuzithuzi ca mbunda, ico cikalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E.

Cifukwa ca kuparanyika kwa Ufumu wa Roma, mu virimika vya m'ma 500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kusuzgika maghanoghano ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanya yayi umo Ŵagiriki ŵakawoneranga caru. Mwakupambana, cifukwa cakuti Ufumu wa Byzantine ukathereska ŵalwani ŵawo, ukasungilira na kusambizga makora ŵanthu: John Philoponus, nkhwantha ya ku Byzantium mu ma 500, wakamba kususka visambizgo vya Aristotle vya sayansi, ndipo wakambiska cisambizgo cakuti vinthu vikupangiska vinthu vinyake. Ivyo wakalemba vikawovwira chomene ŵasayansi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., kweniso Galileo Galilei, uyo wakalemba vinandi vyakukhwaskana na ivyo wakalemba. [2][2][2] 

Mu nyengo zakale kweniso mu nyengo za pakati, ŵanthu ŵakasanda chomene vinthu vya mu charu nga umo Aristotle wakachitiranga. Fundo iyi yikulongosora vinthu vinayi vyakuchitiska ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya: vinthu vyakukhoma, vinthu vyandondomeko, mendero, na chakuchitiska chakumara. Malemba ghanandi gha Chigiriki ghakasungikanga na ufumu wa Byzantine ndipo ng'anamuro gha Chirungwana ghakalembeka na ŵanthu nga ni Nestorians na Monophysites. Mu nyengo ya kuwuso kwa Caliphate, ŵakasanthuro ŵa Chirungwana ŵakanozga mang'anamuliro agha. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 na 700 C.E., ufumu wa Sassanid ukakhazikiska sukulu ya Gondeshapur, ya vyachipatala iyo ŵalongozgi ŵa ciyowoyero ca Cigiriki, Cisiliya, na Ciphasiya ŵakuyiwona kuti yikaŵa yikuru comene pa vyaru vya ku Eguputo.

Nyumba ya Umanyi yikakhazikika mu Baghdad, Iraq, uko kusanda kwachisilamu kwa uchiAristotle kukazurwa m'paka apo Ŵamongoli ŵakawukira mu vyaka vya mʼma 1300. Ibn al-Haytham, uyo wakumanyikwa kuti ni Alhazen, wakamba kuyezga kuti wasange vinjeru ndipo wakakana ivyo Ptolemy wakayowoya pa nkhani ya kuwona.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1100, Cikhristu cikaŵa kuti cazgoka cisopa cikuru comene mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe. Mu 1088, yunivesite ya Bologna yikamba ku Europe. Ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kung'anamura mabuku ghakale na ghasayansi mu Chilatini. Baibolo ili likawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵambeso kumanya vinandi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakusambira chomene ŵa ku Western Europe ŵakachitanga kafukufuku na kuyezgayezga vinthu vinyake. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., ŵasambizgi ŵa vyachipatala na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa pa Yunivesite ya Bologna ŵakamba kupulura mathupi gha ŵanthu, ndipo paumaliro, ŵakalemba buku lakwamba la umo ŵanthu ŵakupangikira.

Nyengo ya kungweruka

Drawing of planets' orbit around the Sun
Chithuzithuzi cha heliocentric model icho chili mu buku la Copernicus lakuti De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

Vinthu viphya ivyo vikachitika mu sayansi ya vinthu vya mu maso vikawovwira chomene kuti nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu yambe, chifukwa vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora vinthu kweniso kuti ŵasinthe vinthu vinyake. Kuuyambiro wa nyengo ya Renaissance, Roger Bacon, Vitello, na John Peckham waliyose wakazenga chisambizgo cha ku sukulu pa chifukwa chakwamba na umo munthu wakujipulikira, umo wakuwonera vinthu, na umo wakuwonera vinthu pa charu chose. Fundo iyi yikugwiliskira nchito vifukwa vitatu pera pa vifukwa vinayi ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya: vyakuwoneka, vyakuzirwa, na vyaumaliro.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Nicolaus Copernicus wakalemba fundo yakuti mapulaneti ghakuzingilira zuŵa. Wakagomezganga fundo yakuti mapulaneti ghakuzingilira charu chapasi nyengo yitali chomene chifukwa chakuti ghakuzingilira charu ndipo ghali kutali chomene na malo agho ghakusendelera.

Johannes Kepler na ŵanyake ŵakasuskanga fundo yakuti ntchito yimoza pera ya jiso ni kuwona, ndipo ŵakasinthanga maghanoghano gha maso kuti ghaŵikenge pa ungweru. Kweni Kepler wakamanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu ivyo vikapangika na Copernicus. Kepler wakakana yayi fundo za Aristotle ndipo wakalemba kuti ntchito yake yikukhumba kuti vinthu viŵe vyakukolerana. Galileo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi, na injiniya. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakamutambuzga chomene Papa Urban VIII wati wamususka chifukwa cha kulemba vya umo charu chiliri pakati pa nyenyezi.

Makina ghakupulinta ghakaŵanga ghakuzirwa nkhanira pakusindikizgira fundo za kasanthuro, kusazgapo fundo zinyake za ŵakususka pa makani gha ulengiwa. Francis Bacon na René Descartes ŵakalemba fundo uvinjeru izo zikovwira kuti ŵasambire sayansi yiphya. Bacon wakachindika kuti kuyezgayezga nkhwakuzirwa chomene kuluska kughanaghaniro, wakafumba fundo za Aristotle za umo vinthu vikendera, kweniso wakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti kasanthuro yikwenera kusambira malango gha ulengiwa kweniso umo umoyo wa ŵanthu ukwenera kukhalira makora. Descartes wakazirwiskanga chomene maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ndipo wakati masamu ghangaŵawovwira kusambira cilengiwa.

Muwiro wa uvumbuzi

see caption
Mutu wa buku lakwamba la mu 1687 la Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica la Isaac Newton

Pa nyengo ya uvumbuzi, Isaac Newton wakalemba buku la Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, ilo likaŵa linga la umekaniki wa mwaka. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz wakabanya mazgu gha mu Ugodoboki wa Aristotle, agho sono ghakusangika mu nthowa yiphya. Ichi chikang'anamuranga kuti vinthu vikwenera kuwonekera makora yayi: ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti palije icho chikukhumbikwa pa umoyo wawo. Leibniz wakaghanaghananga kuti vinthu vyakupambanapambana vikuchita vinthu mwakuyana na malango ghenecho gha ulengiwa.[8]

Mu nyengo izi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona kuti kasanthuro nkhakuzirwa chomene ndipo yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵasange usambazi na vinthu vinyake ivyo vingawovwira ŵanthu kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Bacon wakati "cilato ca sayansi nchakuti ŵanthu ŵasange vinthu viphya na kuŵa ŵasambazi", ndipo wakaŵakanizga ŵasayansi kuti ŵaleke kulondezga visambizgo vyavinjeru panji vyauzimu.

Pa nyengo ya kuwunikira, sayansi yikakhalanga mu mawupu gha sayansi na masukulu gha vya sayansi, agho ghakawovwira kuti masambiro gha pa yunivesite ghaŵe ghakuzirwa chomene. Ŵanthu na masukulu ghakusambizga ŵakaŵa msana wa mulimo wa sayansi. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa icho chikachitika ntchakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanyanga chomene vya sayansi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa visambizgo vya Cikhristu ŵakasankha nkhani zicoko waka za ŵasayansi awo ŵakadankha kusanda vya sayansi, nga ni Galileo, Boyle, na Newton.

Mu vilimika vya mu ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita vinthu vinandi pa makani gha munkhwala na ugudubu, Carl Linnaeus wakalemba vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, kweniso ŵakamanya makora vinjeru vya nkhongono za magineti na magesi. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira vya ŵanthu, vya umoyo, na vyachuma. Hume na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵaku scotland awo ni nkhwantha za kughanaghananga ŵakamba kulemba A Treatise of Human Nature, ilo likaŵa buku likalongosoreka mu mabuku gha James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, na William Robertson.[9] Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakumanya vya mtende ŵakafuma ku wupu uwu. Mu chilimika cha 1776, Adam Smith wakafumiska buku lakuti The Wealth of Nations (usambazgi wa vyaru), ilo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuliwona kuti ni buku lakwamba pa nkhani ya vyachuma.

M'ma 1800

Sketch of a map with captions
Chithunzi chakwamba cha khuni la kusintha kwa vinthu vya moyo icho Charles Darwin wakalemba mu 1837

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vinandi ivyo vikulongora kasanthuro ya mazuŵa ghano vikamba kuwoneka. Ivi vikapangiska kuti vinthu vyamoyo na vya kasanthuro viŵe vyakupambanapambana, kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakovwira nkhanira, na kuyowoya kuti "wakusanthura moyo", "wakuchizga", na "wakasanthuro", kweniso kuti ŵakasanthuro ŵamanye vinandi pa nkhani ya umoyo. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800, kasanthuro ka maghanoghano yikamba kuŵa yakuyana na vinjeru vya ŵanthu apo Wilhelm Wundt wakambiska kafukufuku wa maghanaghano mu 1879.

Mu chilimika cha 1858, Charles Darwin na Alfred Russel Wallace ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu vikachita kusintha kufuma ku vinyake. Fundo iyi yikalembeka mwakupwelelera mu buku la Darwin lakuti On the Origin of Species (vyakukwaska mdauko wa mitundu ya nyama), ilo likafuma mu 1859. Gregor Mendel wakalemba makani ghanyake mu 1865, iyo yikati "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" iyo yikalongosora fundo za umo vinthu vikusankhirikira.

Fundo iyi yikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, na Heinrich Hertz ŵakalemba. Fundo yiphya iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe mafumbo agho ghangazgoreka makora yayi na fundo ya Newton. Mu 1896, Henri Becquerel na Marie Curie ŵakabowozga vyakuti vinthu vili na nkhongono ya radiation. Chaka chinyakeso, ŵakasanga kuti pali kachikhumi kakwamba, ka elekitironi.

m'ma 1900

Graph showing lower ozone concentration at the South Pole
Cigaŵa cakwamba ca ozoni ico cikawoneka pa caru cose, mu 1983

Mu hafu yakudanga ya mphambu iyi, ŵanthu ŵakasanga kuti para ŵamba kupanga ma antibayotiki na vyakumera vyakupangira vyakurya, umoyo wawo ukakhoranga chomene nkhanira. Nkhani za umoyo wa ŵanthu nga ni kumala kwa ozoni, kuzgoka asidi mu nyanja, kusuzgika kwa maji mu mlengalenga, na kusintha kwa nyengo, zikaŵa zakusuzga nkhanira ndipo zikachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵasambire vya mu charu.

Mu muwiro uwu, kuyezga vinthu vya kasanthuro kakaŵa kakuru chomene kweniso kukaŵanga na ndalama zinandi. Nkhondo Yakudanga ya Charu Chose, Nkharo ya Pili ya Caru Chonse, na Nkhara Yakutentha, vikapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa ŵamazaza pa caru cose, nga ni mpikisano wa pa mlengalenga na nkhondo ya ku mlenga na nkhondo ya vya nyukiliya. Kweniso pakaŵa vyandulo vinandi vyakupamba pa makani gha nkhondo.

Kuumaliro kwa m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi kusola ŵanakazi pa njombe zakupambana-pambana nakumazga kuzikizgana pa makani gha kuzikizgana kutolela unalume mu sayansi. Apa cosmic microwave background yikasangika mu 1964, vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupulikira fundo ya Georges Lemaître yakuti vinthu vikuchita mwa steady-state model of the universe.

Mu vilikika ivi, vinthu vikasintha chomene pa nkhani ya sayansi. Chizindikiro cha kusintha kwa zinthu chinachitika m'zaka za mʼma 1900, pamene kusintha kwatsopano kwa Darwin kunagwirizanitsidwa ndi chibadwa cha chiberekero. Albert Einstein wakayowoya kuti kuyana na fundo iyi, matekiniki gha quantum mechanics ghakukhozga chomene matendeko gha matenkhu. Kugwiliskira ntchito ma CD mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha vyaka vya m'ma 1900, pamoza na ma satellites ghakumanyiska vinthu, kukapangiska kuti paŵe kusintha kwa vinthu pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vinthu. Chifukwa cha kukhumbikwa kwa kuŵika vinthu vinandi mu ndondomeko ya vinthu vyakupambanapambana, kweniso vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵeko makora, vikapangiska kuti paŵe masambiro gha vya sayansi.

M'ma 2000

Fuzzy donut-shaped blob on a black background
Chithuzi ungweru wa kanema cha chidolozi chifipa cha M87* chakujambulika na Event Horizon Telescope mu 2019

Mu chilimika cha 2003, mlimo wa Human Genome Project yikamara na kusanga na kupanga mapu gha majini ghose gha munthu. Maselo ghakwamba gha munthu ghakaŵa mu 2006, ndipo ghakawovwira kuti maselo gha ŵanthu ŵalara ghang'anamuke na kuŵa maseli gha maselero agho ghakusangika mu thupi. Mu 2013, pakaŵa upharazgi wa Higgs boson uwo ukati wasangika, ndipo pakaŵaso chipingo chinyake. Mu 2015, ŵakamba kuwona mafunde gha nkhongono zakuzizika agho ghakaŵa kuti ghapangika vyaka vinandi kumasinda. Mu chilimika cha 2019, gulu la pa charu chose ilo likagwiranga lumoza ntchito ya Event Horizon Telescope, likapeleka chithuzi chakwamba cha chipingausiku cha chibuwu chinyake.[10]

Nthavi

Sayansi yasono yikugaŵika mu vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vitatu: sayansi ya vinthu, sayansi ya umoyo wa ŵanthu, na sayansi ya vinthu. Vigaŵa vyose ivi vikusazgapo visambizgo vyakupambanapambana vya sayansi ivyo kanandi vikuŵa na mazina na maluso ghake. Masayansi gha vyamunthazi na gha ŵanthu ni masayansi ghakuchitika waka, chifukwa ivyo ŵakumanya vikuthemba pa ivyo ŵakuwona ndipo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku ŵakuwona kuti ni vyaunenesko.

Kusanthura Ulengiwa

kasanthuro ka ulengiwa yikusanda vinthu vya mucharu. Lingasangika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: kasanthuro ka umoyo na kasanthuro. Maofesi agha ghaŵiri ghangagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, kasanthuro ka vya kukhoma yingagaŵika mu vyamoyo, chemistry, astronomy, na kasanthuro . Kasanthuro ya chilengiwa ya mazuŵa ghano ndiyo yikulondezga vinjeru vya ŵanthu awo ŵakambanga kusambira vinthunzi vya chilangizi mu nyengo yakale. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, na Newton ŵakadumbiskana vya uwemi wa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana za samuzi na kuyezgapo vinthu mwamachitiko. Ndipouli, visambizgo vyavinjeru, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana, na ivyo ŵakugomezga, vikuluwika yayi, kweni vikukhumbikwa pa nkhani ya kasanthuro. Kuwunjika kwa uthenga, kusazgapo kasanthuro ka vinthu ivyo vikapangika, kukakhalira mbiri ya ulengiwa, iyo yikamba mu vyaka vya mu ma 1600, pakulongosora na kusoropora vyakumera, vinyama, na vinthu vyakupendeka. Mazuŵa ghano, "mdauko wa ulengiwa" ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona vinthu.[11]

Kusanthura Umunthu

Two curve crossing over at a point, forming a X shape
mzere wa Kupeleka na kuromba kwa malonda, kujumphana pa Equilibrium.

Kasanthuro ka ŵanthu ni kaŵazgiro ka ŵanthu na vinthu ivyo ŵakuchitir kweniso umo vinthu vyawo vikwendera. Likusambizga vinthu vinandi nthe, kusanda-ukhaliro vyachuma, mbiri, charu-chaŵanthu, kusanthura-ndyali, kusanthula-maghanoghano, na ubali wa ŵanthu.[12] Mu kasanthuro ka umoyo, pali virato vinandi vyakupambana, ivyo vikusazgikira na fundo za kafukufuku nga ni awo ŵakuchita vinthu mwakuyana na umo vinthu viliri, awo ŵakusanda fundo zakususkana, na awo ŵakughanaghana kuti vinthu vikwenda makora mu umoyo wa ŵanthu.[12] Chifukwa cha masuzgo agho ghakusangika pakuchita kuyezga vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita, ŵasayansi ŵangasankha nthowa zinyake zakufufuzira nga ni nthowa ya mbiri, masambiro gha milandu, na masambiro gha mitundu-mitundu. Kweniso usange pali fundo zinandi, ŵaKasanthuro ŵangagomezga fundo za mu kafukufuku kuti ŵamanye makora umo vinthu viliri pa umoyo wa ŵanthu.[12]

Kasanthurilo kaundondomeko

Kasanthuro pa kompyuta ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵakusambira.[13] Njira ya kuwerengera ndi njira yochokera ku machitidwe omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito poyerekeza ndi malamulo.[14] Likusazgilapo samuzi, mikolano, na kasanthuro ka kompyuta. Kasanthuro ka pa charu chose kikuyana na yinyakeso chifukwa yikukolerana na fundo za umo vinthu vikwendera. Kweni vikupambana na sayansi ya empirical chifukwa vikuthemba waka pa fundo zakughanaghana, kwambura kusowa ukaboni wa empiric kuti vikhozge fundo izo zikughanaghanika. Ntheura, masayansi gha pa charu chose ni masambiro ghapadera ndipo chifukwa cha fundo iyi pali mphindano pa nkhani ya usange ni sayansi. Ndipouli, masayansi ghakuchita mulimo wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya sayansi. Mwaciyelezgero, pakwamba ŵakacita maseŵero gha kughanaghana kuti ŵamanye umo vinthu vikwendera. Sayansi ya sayansi iyo yikuthemba chomene pa masamu, ni masamu, sayansi ya vinthu vyamoyo, sayansi ya ndalama, na sayansi ya vyachuma. [15][16][17]

Kasanthurilo Kakukhoma

see caption
Chitoliro cha mvuchi cha chigoba kujulira. vitoliro ivi vikupanga magesi ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazuŵa ghano.

Kasanthuro Kwakugwiliskika ntchito ni nthowa ya Kasanthura na kumanya vinthu ivyo vikovwira kuti vinthu vichitike makora. Uzengi ni nthowa iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito fundo za sayansi pakupangiska, kupanga, na kuzenga mashini, vyakuzenga, ndiposo matekinoloje. Kugwira ntchito ya munkhwala ni kupwelelera mulwari na kumovwira kuti waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Kanandi sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi yikupambana na sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi, iyo yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasambire vya sayansi na malango agho ghakulongosora vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu charu.[18]

Kasanthuro ka makompyuta yikugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya kompyuta kuti yilengeske vinthu ivyo vikuchitika nadi. Kugwiliskira nchito makina ghakusambizga vinthu na vinjeru vya wunthu kukuzgoka cinthu cakuzirwa comene pa nkhani ya sayansi, nga umo tikucitira pa nkhani ya makompyuta. Ndipouli, makina ghekha ghakumanya vinandi yayi chifukwa ghakukhumbikwira munthu kuti waŵalongozge na kuŵawovwira.

Kasanthurilo kakupambanapambana kugwira pamoza

Kasanthuro ako kakukolerana na visambizgo vinyake yikusazgapo visambizgo viŵiri panji vinandiko kuŵa chimoza, nga ni bioinformatics, kusangana kwa sayansi ya vyamoyo na kompyuta panji sayansi ya maghanoghano. Fundo iyi yikamba mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki ndipo yikamba kutchuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900.

Kafukufuku Ka Kasanthurilo

Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na kasanthuro wangamanyikwa kuti nchakuzirwa panji cakovwira. Kafukufuku wakudumura wakung'anamura kupenja umanyi, ndipo kafukufuku wakugwiliskira nchito wakung'anamura kupenja mazgoro gha mafumbo agho munthu wangafiska. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakupulikiska makora fundo iyi chifukwa cha kafukufuku uyo ŵakuchita, nangauli nyengo zinyake ŵakuchita kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu vinyake. Ivi vikupangiska kuti paŵe vinthu vinyake ivyo vingachitika yayi.[19]

Nthowa ya Kasanthurilo

6 steps of the scientific method in a loop
Chithuzithuzi cha nthowa ya kasanthurilo iyo yikulongosoreka nga ni ndondomeko iyo yikulutilira waka.

Kafukufuku wa sayansi wakovwira kuti vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa vileke kulutilira. Ŵasayansi ŵakughanaghana kuti fundo zinyake izo zikukhumbikwa pakusanda nthowa ya kasanthuro ni zaunenesko. Pali vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona makora vinthu. Masamu ngakukhumbikwa chomene pakusambizga fundo, fundo, na malango, chifukwa ghakugwiliskirika ntchito chomene pakusanda, kuwona, na kupima vinthu. Ŵakasanthuro ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa ivi kuti ŵamanye umo vinthu viliri.

Mu nthowa ya kasanthuro , chiyezgo panji fundo ya maghanoghano yikulongosoreka nga ni fundo iyo yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe wakukolerana na fundo zinyake izo zikukolerananga na ivyo munthu wakuwona panji ivyo wakusambira. Kuwuskako uchimi mbukaboni wakuti vinthu vikwenda makora. 4-5 Kuyezgayezga nkhwakuzirwa chomene mu sayansi kuti munthu waleke kuchita vinthu mwakubudika.

Para munthu waleka kufiska ivyo wakukhumba, ŵakumusintha panji kumukanira. Para fundo yinyake yingawoneka kuti njaunenesko, yingaŵa chigaŵa cha sayansi. Fundo ya sayansi ni fundo iyo yikulongosora umo vinthu vinyake vikuchitikira. Mwakupambana na vigomezgo, ivyo vikulongosora waka ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona, fundo yikulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira. Lingatovwira kupulikiska fundo zinandi. Ntheura, fundo njakuyana na fundo iyo yikulongosora fundo zinyake. Para munthu wakughanaghana vya sayansi wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakuyana waka. Ŵakasanthuro ŵangapanga viyelezgero ivyo vikulongora umo vinthu viliri. Vinthu ivi vikovwira kuti paŵe fundo ziphya izo zingayezgeka.

Para kasanthuro ŵakuchita maukaboni, ŵakutemwa chomene fundo zinyake.[20][21] Kuti munthu waleke kutemwera, wakwenera kuŵa wakujikuzga, kuŵa maso, kweniso kuwona makora ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Para vyachitika ivi vyapharazgika panji kupharazgika, ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti nchakwenelera kuti ŵasayansi ŵamanye umo kafukufuku wakendera. Para munthu wakuwona fundo zose, wakumanya kuti fundo za kasanthuro zikovwira kuti munthu waŵe wakughanaghana makora pa nkhani iyi.[22] Para munthu wakukhumba kumanya vinandi pa nkhani ya sayansi, wakwenera kuŵa na mahara ghakupulikiskirana..

Mabuku gha sayansi

Decorated "NATURE" as title, with scientific text below
Pa chikopi cha magazini yakwamba ya Nature, Novembala 4, 1869

Pa nkhani za kasanthuro pali mabuku ghanandi. Mabuku gha makani gha kasanthuro ghakulongosora na kulemba ivyo ŵakasanthuro ŵakuchita pa masukulu ghapachanya na pa malo ghanyake ghakusoperapo. <i id="mwBFQ"></i>Buku la makani gha kasanthuro lakwamba la sayansi, Journal des sçavans, yikati yakhalako, Philosophical Transactions yikamba kulembeka mu 1665. Kufuma nyengo yira, magazini ghose ghakukolerana ghakula. Mu 1981, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti pakaŵa magazini 11,500 gha sayansi na tekinoloje.

Mabuku ghamakani ghanandi gha kasanthuro ghakuyowoya vya kasanthuro yimoza ndipo ghakulemba ivyo ŵasanga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakutemwa chomene sayansi mwakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumba kumanya ivyo ŵakasanthuro ŵakuchita.[23]

Visuzgo

Suzgo la kukwandana kupangika vinthu vinyake ni suzgo ilo likulutilira pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Pa kafukufuku wakulondezgapo, vyakusangika mu masambiro ghanandi gha sayansi vikulongora kuti vingachitika yayi. Suzgo ili lili na mizu ya nyengo yitali; mazgu agha ghakalembeka kumasinda kwa m'ma 2010 cifukwa ca kumanya makora suzgo ili. Ŵakuwona kuti suzgo ili likukura chomene. Suzgo ya kupulinta yikwimira kafukufuku wakuzirwa comene mu sayansi ya vinthu ivyo vikucitika pa caru capasi, uwo ukuciska kuti kafukufuku wa sayansi yose walutilire kwenda makora uku wakuchepeska kunanga vinthu.

Para munthu wakusambira panji kughanaghana vinthu vinyake ndipo wakujibisa nga ni sayansi kuti waŵe na chigomezgo chakuti vinthu ivi vingachitika yayi, nyengo zinyake wakuchemeka pseudoscience, fringe science, panji junk science. Wakasanthuro Richard Feynman wakalemba lizgu lakuti "cargo cult science" kuti walongosore za ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vinthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵakuchita vinthu vya sayansi, kweni ŵakutondeka kuŵa ŵakugomezgeka. Pali mitundu yakupambanapambana ya malonda, kwambira pa kupusikizgira ŵanthu kuti ŵapusikenge. Ŵanthu ŵakuti sayansi "ntchakukhumbikwa chomene" pakupambaniska pakati pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya na ivyo ŵakuyowoya yayi..

Kweniso pa nkhani za sayansi pangaŵa fundo zinyake za ndyali panji za maghanoghano. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti kafukufuku uyo wakuchitika na chilato chiwemi, ngwakubudika, ngwachikale, ngwakupeleŵera, panji wakulongosora fundo za sayansi mwakupepuka. Mazgu ghakuti "kuswa malango gha sayansi" ghakung'anamura vinthu ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakuchita mwambura kwenelera.

Unjeru wa kusanthura

Depiction of epicycles, where a planet orbit is going around in a bigger orbit
Kuyana na Kuhn, kusazgako ma epicycles mu Ptolemaic astronomy kukaŵa "sayansi" mu paradigm, apo Copernican revolution yikaŵa kusintha kwa paradigm.

Pali maghanaghaniro ghakupambanapambana pa makani gha vinjeru vya kasanthuro. Fundo yakutchuka chomene njakuti ŵanthu ŵakumanya vinthu vinandi, ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakuchita vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakuwona. Kaŵirikaŵiri empiricism imaphatikizapo inductivism, malo omwe amafotokozera momwe malingaliro ambiri angapangidwire kuchokera ku chiwerengero chochepa cha umboni wa zochitika zomwe zilipo. Pali mitundu yinandi ya empiricism, iyo yikuluska Bayesianism na hypothetico-deductive method.[24]

Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vikupambana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana, ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakusambira vinandi yayi, kweni ivyo ŵakuwona. Chitemwa cha ŵanthu kuyana na umo vinthu vikaŵira pa nyengo ya ŵanthu, chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye vinandi. Popper wakakana umo empiricism yikulongosolera umo paliri kukolerana pakati pa fundo na kuwona. Iyo wakati maukaboni ghakufuma mu umoza yayi, kweni ghakufumira mu fundo yakuti fundo ya mu Baibolo yingaŵako yayi. Popper wakapempha kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti vinthu vikwenda makora, ndipo ŵakasankha nthowa ya kuchenjerera.[25] Popper wakasachizga kuti para ŵakasanthuro ŵakughanaghana kuti vinthu viŵenge makora pa umoyo wawo, ŵaghanaghanenge kuti vinthu viŵenge makora yayi. Popper wakalongosola kuti pali nthowa yimoza pera iyo yikukolerana na kasanthuro: nthowa ya kususka, kuyezga na kunanga, iyo yikukhwaska vinthu vyose ivyo munthu wakuchita, kusazgapo kasanthuro, masamu, vinjeru, na luso.

Fundo yinyake, iyo njakuti, instrumentalism, yikulongora kuti vinjeru ni vyakuzirwa nkhanira pakulongosora na kuneneranga vinthu. Likuti vinthu vya kasanthuro ni vyakubiskika, ndipo vikovwira waka umo vingaŵira (vyapakudanga) na umo vyambirenge (vyakuloska). Ŵanthu ŵakuti vinthu ivyo vikuchitika, vinthu vya mu maghanaghano, na umo vinthu viliri, vikwenera kuperekeka yayi. Kuyana na fundo iyi, fundo yikuru iyo yikovwira munthu kuti wasambire vya sayansi njakuti ivyo likuyowoya pa nkhani ya vinthu ivyo tingaviwona ni vyaunenesko.

Thomas Kuhn wakayowoya kuti ndondomeko ya kuwona na kughanaghanira vinthu yikuchitika mu ndondomeko, iyo yikukolerana na "vivumbuzi" vya charu. Iyo wakalemba sayansi ya vinthu nga ni ndondomeko ya kuwona na "kusanda mafumbo" agho ghakuchitika mu ndondomeko, apo sayansi yikulongora kuti pali kusintha kwa vinthu. Chiyelezgero chilichose chili na mafumbo, vilato, na ng'anamuro lake. Para munthu wakusankha vinthu viŵiri panji vinandi, wakuwona umo vinthu viliri mu charu ndipo wakusankha ivyo vikuyana. Kusintha kwa kawonekero kakuchitika para kawonekero ka vinthu kakuwoneka makora yayi mu kawonekero kakale ndipo kawonekero katsopano kakovwira. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti para munthu wasankha chiyelezgero chiphya wakuchita ivyo walaŵiska, nangauli ivyo walaŵiska vikukolerana yayi na chiyelezgero chakale. Kuyana na Kuhn, kuzomera panji kukana ciyelezgero cimoza ni nthowa yakucitira vinthu pa umoyo wa munthu nga umo vikuŵira na fundo za mu Baibolo. Ndipouli, Kuhn wakugomezga kuti vinthu vyose ni vyekha yayi.

Paumaliro, nthowa yinyake iyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera pa nkhani ya sayansi iyo yikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga, nga ni sayansi ya kulenga, ni naturalism. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vya chilengiwa ŵakugomezga kuti pali mphambano pakati pa chilengezi na chinyake, ndipo sayansi yikwenera kupangika na kulongosora waka vinthu vyamunthazi. Chisambizgo chakuti vinthu vikachita kusintha kufuma ku vinyake chikuyowoya kuti sayansi yikwenera kulondezga fundo za ukaboni.

Wupu wa Ŵasanthuri

Ŵakasanthuro awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku ŵakukolerana. Wupu uwu uli na magulu ghacoko waka agho ghakucita vinthu vya sayansi. Para ŵasayansi ŵakuchita kafukufuku mu manyuzipepara na pa maungano, ŵakukhozga kuti ŵasambirenge mwaluso kweniso ŵalutilire kuŵa ŵakugomezgeka.

Ŵasayansi

Portrait of a middle-aged woman
Marie Curie wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kupokera mphaso ziŵiri za Nobel: Physics mu 1903 na Chemistry mu 1911.

Ŵakasanthuro ni ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa kasanthuro kuti ŵamanye vinandi mu ivyo nivyakuzirwa kwa iwo.[26][27] Mazuŵa ghano, ŵakasanthuro ŵanandi ŵakusambira vya kasanthuro ndipo para ŵamara kusambira, ŵakumanya vya masambiro gha pa charu chose. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuchita milimo zinandi mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana nga ni kwamasambiro, mawupu, boma, na vyakusunga ndalama.

Ŵakasanthuro ŵakutemwa chomene kusanda vya vinthu vyenecho ndipo ŵakukhumba kuti ŵasange chandulo na vinthu ivyo ŵakasanthuro ŵakuchita kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora, umo ŵangachitira na ŵanthu, charu, na malo agho ŵakukhala. Vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora vinthu ni kuzirwa kwa ŵanyawo. Mazuŵa ghalero, ŵakasanthuro ŵanandi ŵali na madigiri ghapachanya mu ŵakasanthuro ndipo ŵakulutilira kucita milimo mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana vya chuma nga ni masukulu, mawupu, boma, na mawupu ghambura kupenja ndalama.

Kwamba kale, kasanthuro kaŵa kakuzula na ŵanalume ŵanandi. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakasambizganga kasanthuro ŵakayuzgikanga chomene, nga umo ŵakachitiranga mu vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga na ŵanalume. Mwaciyelezgero, kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakagwiranga nchito kwambura kupika nchito ndipo ŵakapika yayi mwaŵi wa kucita nchito yawo. Ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakuchita pa nkhani ya sayansi vikupangiska kuti ŵaleke kuchita makora pa ntchito ya ku malo ghanyake. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakusambira masambiro ghapachanya ŵakuwa nawi yayi mwaŵi wa kusambira vya kasanthuro, kweni ŵakutemwa chomene masambiro agha.

maWupu gha Ŵakusambira

Chithunzi cha ŵasayansi pa chikumbutso cha zaka 200 za Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1900

Ŵanthu ŵakusambira chomene vya sayansi na kuyezgayezga ŵakamba kuwungana kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwelera ku vyaka vya m'ma 1800.[28] Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵali mu gulu ilo likovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasambire sayansi, ntchito, panji vinyake.[29] Munthu waliyose wangakwaniska kuŵa mu gulu ili, panji wakwenera kuŵa na maudindo gha sayansi, kweniso wangasankhika.[30] Mabungwe ghanandi gha sayansi ni ghasambazi yayi, ndipo ghanandi ni mabungwe gha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito.[31] Kanandi ŵakuchitako maungano ghakusambizga na kudumbiskana ivyo ŵasayansi ŵabowozga, kweniso ŵakupanga panji kupeleka wovwiri ku magazini. Mabungwe ghanyake ghakuŵa nga ni mawupu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito iyi. [ Umboni kakhumbika]

Kuchita milimo ya kasanthuro, uko kuyakamba mu vyaka vya mu ma 1800, kukapangiska kuti ŵakasanthuro kaŵe ŵakumanyikwa chomene pa charu chose nga ni Accademia dei Lincei ya ku Italy mu 1603, Royal Society ya waBritani mu 1660, French Academy of Sciences mu 1666 na American National Academy mu 1863, German Kaiser Wilhelm Society mu 1911, na Chinese Academy.[32][33][34][35][36][37] Mawupu gha pa caru cose ghakuwona vya kasanthuro, nga ni International Science Council, ghakovwira kuti kasanthuro kende makora.[38]

Vyawanangwa

Kanandi ŵanthu panji mawupu agho ghachitapo kanthu pa makani gha kusanthura ghakuŵa na vyawanangwa. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika ndiwo ŵakupeleka, ntheura ntchakuzirwa chomene kuti wakasanthuro wapike. Kufuma waka mu nyengo ya kungweruka, ŵakasanthuro ŵakamba kupika mendulo, ndalama, na mazina ghautesi. Caka cilicose, ŵanthu awo ŵasanga candulo na sayansi pa nkhani ya munkhwala, sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi, na sayansi ya vinthu vyamumlengalenga ndiwo ŵakupokera njombe ya Nobel.

Wupu

Ndalama na ndondomeko

see caption
Bajeti ya NASA mu ndime ya bajeti yakuzomerezgeka ya United States, yikakwera pa 4.4% mu 1966 ndipo yikamba kuchepa kufuma mu 1966.

Kanandi kafukufuku wa kasanthuro ukwendera pa mpikisano, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kupenja ndalama ŵakulindilirapo waka. Maboma, mabungwe, panji masisiteri ghakupanga vinthu ivi, ndipo ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ni zichoko chomene. Ndalama zose izo ŵanthu ŵakovwilira pa kafukufuku mu vyaru vinandi vikuŵa pakati pa 1.5% na 3% pa GDP.[39] Mu OECD, pafu-pifupi vigaŵa viŵiri vya viŵaro vya kafukufuku wa sayansi na tekinoloje vikucitikira na makampani, ndipo 20% na 10% vikuchitika na ŵa kwamasambiro gha unkhwantha na boma. Pa vigaŵa vinyake, boma likupeleka ndalama zinandi chomene, ndipo likulongozga pa kafukufuku wa vya sayansi na vya ŵanthu. Mu vyaru ivyo vikukura luŵiro yayi, boma likupeleka ndalama zinandi kuti ŵanthu ŵachitire kafukufuku.

Maboma ghanandi ghali na mawupu agho ghakovwira pa kafukufuku wa kasanthuro nga ni National Science Foundation ku United States, National Scientific and Technical Research Council ku Argentina, Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization ku Australia, the National Centre for Scientific Research ku France, Max Planck Society ku Germany, na National Research Board ku Spain.[40][41][42] Mu vyakupenjerezga na kupanga vinthu vya malonda, mabungwe ghose agho ghakusanga vyakukhumbikwa pa kafukufuku, ghakuŵika mtima comene pa malonda gha nyengo yicoko waka m'malo mwa kupenjerezga waka.

Ndondomeko za kasanthuro zikukhwaska ndondomeko izo zikukhwaskanga umo ntchito za pa kasanthuro zikuchitikira, kusazgapo ndalama zakupeleka ku kafukufuku, ndipo umo kanandi zikovwilira kuti vinthu vinyake vya pa charu viŵe makora nga nkhusintha vinthu pa makani gha vyakuzenga vya luso la kasanthuro, kupanga virwelo, kupwelelera umoyo, na kulondezga vinthu vya mu malo. Nyengo zinyake fundo za kasanthuro zikung'anamura kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vya sayansi na umo ŵanthu ŵakukolerana pakusankha ndondomeko za boma. Mu ndondomeko za boma, izo zikukhwaska na umoyo wa ŵanthu, chirato cha kasanthuro nchakuti ŵakasanthuro na ŵantchito ŵithu ŵasambire umo ŵangateŵetera ŵanthu. Ndondomeko za boma zingaŵakhwaska mwambura kunweka ŵanthu awo ŵakovwira pa ntchito ya kupangiska ndalama na kuwunjika vinthu vyauzimu kuti ŵasange ndalama zakwendeskera kafukufuku.[23]

Kusambizga na Umanyi

Chiwoneskero cha chinyama cha 'dinosaur' ku nyumba yachiwoneski ya Houston Museum of Natural Science

Masambiro gha kasanthuro ka ŵanthu ŵose kanandi kakusangika mu makalikyulamu gha kwamasambiro, ndipo ghakukhorwa na masambiro gha pa Mpilingizgoli (nga ndi YouTube na Khan Academy), malo ghakupwanthirapo vinthu, kweniso mabuku gha makani gha vya kasanthuro na mabulogi. Kuŵazga na kulemba kwa kasanthuro kukukhwaska chomene kupulikiska nthowa za kasanthuro, mayuniti na nthowa zakuyezgera, kupulika vinthu, kumanya makora vya ndendende (kuyana na umo vinthu viliri, kuwona vinthu mwakukwana, na kuwona umo viliriso), kweniso kumanya vinthu vya sayansi nga ni Ugudubu, chemistry, biology, ecology. Para msambiri wakuluta ku masambiro ghapachanya, wakusambira makora. Vinthu ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu pulani ya sukulu ni sayansi ya chilengiwa na ya munthazi, kweni vinthu ivyo vyachitika sonosono apa ni vya kasanthuro.

Ŵapharazgi ŵakani ŵakusuzgika nkhanira kulongosora makora yene fundo za kasanthuro fundo zinyakhe izo zikususkana na fundo. Kuti munthu wasange fundo izo zikovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵamanye makora umo ŵangachitira pa makani gha kasanthuro, wakwenera kuŵa na umanyi wakukhora.[43] Ŵanandi mwa awo ŵakulemba makani gha kasanthuro ŵakumanya yayi vinandi, ndipo awo ŵakudumbiskana nkhani zinyake za mu sayansi ŵakuŵamanya yayi nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵakuŵazgora.

maBuku ya makani gha kasanthuro nga ndi New Scientist, Science & Vie, na Scientific American ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ndipo ghakuyowoya vinandi pa makani gha kafukufuku, kusazgapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵasangirapo na ivyo vyachitika pa milimo yinyake. Mabuku gha Kasanthuro ghakukomezga, chomenechomene kasanthuro ka kumanyikwa makola viŵi yayi kakuvwila ŵanthu kumanya vya kasanthuro.[44] Pa vinthu ivi, pali fundo zinyake izo zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukondwa para ŵakulemba mabuku.[45]

Kulimbana na sayansi

Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga kuti sayansi ndiyo njakovwira, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakukana panji ŵakukayikira ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakuyowoya. Viyelezgero ni fundo yakuti COVID-19 ni suzgo likuru yayi ku America (yomwe yikukhozgeka na 39% ya ŵanthu ku America mu Ogasiti 2021) panji fundo yakuti kusintha kwa nyengo nkhwakofya yayi ku America (iyo yikukhozgeka na 40% ya ŵanthu ku America, mu 2019 na 2020). Ŵasayansi ŵakuti pali vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska ŵanthu kukana ivyo ŵasayansi ŵasanga:

  • Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu awo ŵali na mazaza pa nkhani ya sayansi mbambura kumanya vinandi, ŵakutondeka kugomezga, panji ŵakususka.
  • Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali ku chigaŵa chinyake ŵali na nkharo iyo yikususkana na sayansi, chifukwa kanandi ŵanthu aŵa ŵakuchita vinthu mwambura kwenelera.
  • Uthenga uwo ŵasayansi ŵakupeleka ungapatana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga.
  • Para munthu wapulika uthenga wa sayansi, wangakondwa yayi na umo wakusambira.

Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakutinkha kasanthuro chifukwa cha kuwopa kuti ŵanthu ŵalekekenge mu ma gula ghagho gha uzengezgani. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵankhonde na ŵaŵili pera pa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku America awo ŵali ku chigaŵa ca kumalyero, ŵakughanaghana kuti kusintha kwa nyengo nkhwakofya, kweni ŵanthu 85 pera ku vigaŵa vya kumanzere ŵakugomezga yayi kuti nkhwakofya.[46] Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti usange munthu munyake wa ku mafumiro gha dazi wakuwona kuti kusintha kwa nyengo nkhwakofya yayi, ŵanthu ŵangamuyuyura na kumukana. Nakuti ŵanthu ŵakukana fundo iyo ŵasayansi ŵakuti njakwenelera kuluska kusuzgika panji kusangana na masuzgo.

Ndyali

Result in bar graph of two questions ("Is global warming occurring?" and "Are oil/gas companies responsible?"), showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans
Kawonero ka ŵanthu pa nkhani ya kuthukila kwa caru mu United States mwakuyana na vipani.

Kanandi umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikila kukhwaska makani gha kasanthuro kakuŵa chifukwa cha ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyakhe ŵakuyowoya kweniso ivyo ŵakukhumba kuchita. Maboma, mabungwe gha bizinesi, na ŵanthu awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasange chandulo, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malango na vyamalonda kuti ŵakhwaske ŵakasanthuro. Vinthu vinandi vingapangiska kasanthuro kuŵe ka kukwaska ndale na kambura mahala ghakuplikikwa makola, nga pakuwona kasanthuro kuŵa kukususka mazaza gha chisopa, na mazaza gha ŵa malonda. Kanandi kasanthuro kakuzgoka ka ndyali para ŵanthu ŵayowoyapo vinthu vyakusangika mu kasanthuro mwautesi mwakuyana na ivi iwo ŵakugomezga. Ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa izi kuti ŵamanye fundo izo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga, nga nkhuleka kusambizga ŵanthu unenesko, na kughanaghanira fundo za sayansi. Mwachiyelezgero, pali nkhani zinyake izo zikovwira kuti sayansi yileke kuŵa ya ndyali.[47]

Bekaniso

  • Mndandanda wa ntchito za sayansi
  • Mndandanda wa zaka za sayansi

Vyakulemba vifupi


Vibekero

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