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Njara ya ku Nyasaland mu 1949

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Njara ya Nyasaland ya 1949 yikaŵa njara iyo yikachitika mu vigaŵa vya Shire Highlands mu chigaŵa cha Southern Province of Nyasaland (lero Malawi) kweniso mu chigaŵa cha Central Province mu 1949: vyakuchitika vyake vikafika mu 1950. Cifukwa cake cikaŵa chilangalanga cikuru ico cikacitika mu Disembala 1948 m'paka Janyuwale 1949 ndiposo mu Malichi 1949 ico cikaparanya vyakurya vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakaryanga. Ivi vikacitika pamanyuma pa vilimika viŵiri vyambura kuŵako kwa vula na vyakurya viheni ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyamara. Vyakurya vikaŵa makora yayi cifukwa cakuti boma likakanizga kuŵika vyakurya vinandi mu malo ghakusungirako vyakurya, likadumulizga kunjizga vyakurya vyakukwana, ndipo likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakapika vyakurya ivi ndiwo ŵapeleke. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa na njara, pakaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 200, kweni ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafwa na njara yayi.[1]

Ŵanthu ŵakukolerana yayi pa ivyo vikupangiska njara iyi. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵakatenge nthaka yikubinkha chifukwa cha kulima chomene kweniso chifukwa cha hona m'malo mwa vyakurya.[2]Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵaleke kukura makora chifukwa cha kupoka malo ghawo, kupeleka msonkho ku ŵalimi ŵa ku Africa, na kuŵapoka malipiro ghachoko waka.Sonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira comene za umo vinthu vikaŵira mu vyaru ivi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930 na 1940. Cakwamba, ici cikapangiska kuti ŵantchito na ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵagure vyakurya, kweni ŵakeneranga kusanga vyakurya vinandi cifukwa cakuti ŵalimi ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakaryanga vyakurya ivi. Kweniso, vinthu vinandi ivyo vikasintha pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kusanga malo ghakukwana gha kulima panji nchito yiwemi.[3]

Kulima na nyengo

Kulima na vula

Mu nyengo yose iyo charu cha Nyasaland chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa atsamunda, vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaryanga mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vikaŵa vyakurya vya chimanga, ivyo vikizanga kufuma ku Mozambique, ndipo vikamba mu ma 1800. Kuumaliro wa nyengo ya ŵakoloni, mbuto ya mbuto ya mbuto ya mbuto yikakwana 60 peresenti ya vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Nyasaland ŵakaryanga. Ŵakaŵanga na viŵeto vichoko chomene mu vigaŵa vya Shire Highlands, nangauli ŵalimi ŵachoko ŵakaŵanga na mberere panji mbuzi zichoko waka ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa na nkhuku.[4]

Ng'ombe iyo yikakuranga mu 1949 yikakhalanga nyengo yitali yayi, ndipo yikakhumbikwiranga vula pafupifupi masentimita 5 m'paka 8 mu myezi yitatu yakwamba. Chigaŵa cha Shire Highlands chikuŵa na vula zinandi mu nyengo yose ya kulima ya myezi yinkhondi, kweni chifukwa cha vula iyo yikaseŵeka mu chigaŵa ichi, vula iyo yikulokwa pa chaka yikapangiska kuti vyakurya visinthe chomene.

Vula yinandi ya ku Nyasaland yikalokwa para Intertropical Convergence Zone yajumpha mu charu ichi, kanandi pakati pa Novembala chaka chimoza na Malichi chaka chakulondezgapo, kweni vula yikasintha chifukwa cha El Niño na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika mu nyengo. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa chilangalanga pakati pa 1946 na 1949. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu 1947 mu South Africa na Southern Rhodesia muŵe njara yikuru, ndipo mu 1947 na 1948 mu Nyasaland mukaŵa chilangalanga icho chikapangiska kuti mu vyaka ivi vyakurya vileke kuŵa vinandi. Njara yikuru iyo yikacitika kumwera kwa Malaŵi mu 1949 yikaŵa nyengo yaumaliro ya chilangalanga.[5][6]

Access to land

Mu ma 1940, ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵa ku Nyasaland ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kupwantha, ndipo mbumba ya ŵalimi iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakukhwima awo ŵakakuranga chomene mbuto ya mbuto, yikatenge yingalima makilomita 4.5 panji 5 pa chaka. Ŵanakazi ŵambura kutora ŵakateŵeteranga hektara yimoza kwambura wovwiri. Kuzakafika mu 1949, mbuto zikapambika matani 0.4 pa hekita. Kufumira mu 1940, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhumba chomene malo ghakupwanthirapo. Nanga ni awo ŵakaŵa na malo ghakukwana ghakupwanthirapo, nyengo zinyake ŵakaŵanga na njara. Mabanja ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na malo ghacoko panji ŵanthu ŵacoko ghakaŵa pangozi ya njara.[7]

Pafupifupi 70% ya ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko ŵa ku Africa mu vigaŵa vya Shire Highlands ŵakakhalanga mu malo gha Ŵanandi, ndipo ŵakalipanga renti yayi. Malo agha ghakaŵa pafupifupi 50 peresenti ya malo gha mu chigaŵa ichi, ndipo apo ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga, malo gha Native Trust ghakaŵa ghanandi chomene, ndipo ghanandi ghakaŵanga gha tirigu umoza. Ŵekha awo ŵakaŵa na minda yikuru ndiyo ŵakaliskanga vyakurya vinandi, ndipo hona, uyo ni vyakurya ivyo boma likakhozgeranga chomene mu chigaŵa cha Central Province, wakaŵa wakwenelera yayi ku malo gha Shire Highlands.

Ŵalimi ŵanyake 30 pa 100 awo ŵakaŵa ku Africa, ŵakakhalanga mu malo gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Malo agha ghakaŵa pafupifupi maekala 700,000 (makilomita 280,000) mu malo gha Shire Highlands panji pafupifupi 50% ya malo agho ghakaŵapo, kusazgapo malo ghanandi ghakutowa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha ŵakeneranga kulipira renti, ndipo pakwamba ŵakagwiranga ntchito yakuchemeka thangata. Kweni mu 1949, ŵakalipanga ndalama zanthena izi mu ndalama panji para ŵapeleka hona panji vyakurya vinyake kwa mweneko wa malo. Nangauli malo agha ghakaŵa ghanandi chomene ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga viŵi yayi mu mizi iyo mukaŵavya vyakurya, kweni chifukwa chakuti ŵakeneranga kulima vyakurya kuti ŵapeleke renti, malo ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene ndipo ŵakagwiranga ntchito zinandi.[8]

Agricultural marketing

Pambere Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yindambe, ku Nyasaland kukacitikanga vinandi yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kupanga na kugaŵira vyakurya. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa mu matawuni ŵakeneranga kugura vyakurya, kweni ŵakaguliskanga viŵi yayi. Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵa ku Africa na awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga vyakurya ivyo ŵakasanganga pa msika. Mu vilimika vinyake, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaguliskanga waka vyakurya vichoko waka pa msika. Kweniso boma likakanizganga ŵanthu kuguliska mbuto izo likaguliskanga.

Boma la Nyasaland likakhazikiska malango ghanandi gha nyengo ya nkhondo kuti ghakhozge ulimi, ndipo ghanyake ghakaŵa ghakukhalilira mu nyengo ya nkhondo. Mu 1947, likakhazikiska wupu wakuwona vya vyakurya uwo ukaŵa na mulimo wa kuvikilira vyakurya vya ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 67,000 mu vigaŵa vya kumwera na vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, yikaŵa na ndalama zichoko, ndipo yikaguliskanga mphuzi yake pa mtengo wapasi comene, ndipo yikakanizganga kupanga mphuzi zinandi zakuguliska ku caru cawo panji zakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake cifukwa ca mtengo wa kugura na kusunga.

Wupu wakuwona vya mbuto ukaŵa na cilato cakuti upwelelere vyakurya pafupifupi 5% pera na kupanga vyakurya vicoko. Ndipouli, cifukwa cakuti vyaka viŵiri vyakwambilira vya mulimo wake vikakolerana na vuna yiheni ya mu 1947 na 1948, wakagura waka vyakurya pafupifupi 2% mu vilimika viŵiri ivi. Pamanyuma pa njara, Board yikasazgirako mtengo uwo yikapelekanga pa mbuto ya mbuto kufuma pa 7% mu 1951 kufika pa 10% mu 1952.[9][10]

Narrative

Although seasonal hunger before crops were ready to harvest was common in Nyasaland, famine was relatively infrequent in the Shire Highlands during the century after 1850, and the area was sometimes a refuge for those fleeing famine from nearby areas of Mozambique.[11] One drought recorded by early missionaries was in the years 1861 to 1863, which coincided with a time of acute political upheaval that dislocated agriculture, and another occurred in 1922.[12]

The 1949 famine occurred in an area of NyasaMu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, vinthu vikasintha comene mu caru. Chigaŵa cha Blantyre chikaŵa waka chigaŵa cha kulima yayi, kweni chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu matawuni gha Blantyre na Limbe, mu minda ya hona panji tiyi iyo yikaŵa ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, ndiposo mu vyaru vya Rhodesia na South Africa. Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵa ku Africa ŵakakuranga vyakurya vinandi, comenecomene hona. Ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa cha Blantyre ŵakamba kupambanako, ndipo ŵanandi, ŵa mu matawuni na ku mizi, ŵakathembanga ndalama izo ŵakasanganga kuti ŵagure vyakurya.

Njara ya mu 1949 yikaŵa yikuru comene mu vigaŵa vya Lunzu na Lirangwe mu cigaŵa ca Blantyre, kumpoto kwa msumba wa Blantyre. Mu cigaŵa ca Dedza na Port Herald (Nsanje) mukaŵaso njara yikuru ya vyakurya.[13]

Failing rains

Mu 1947 na 1948, kukawa vula zinandi yayi, ndipo mu 1947, ŵaleza ŵakaparanya vyakurya. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵagwiliskirenge nchito vyakurya ivyo ŵakaŵa navyo.

Nyengo ya vula ya 1948-9 yikamba makora mu cigaŵa ca Blantyre, kweni mu Novembala na Disembala 1948, vula yikakhira. Vinthu vikapambananga comene pa malo na malo, kweni malo agho ghakatimbanizgika comene ghakaŵa na vula yakujumpha hafu ya vula iyo yikalokwa pa caka. Vipambi vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pakwamba kulima vikapona, kweni vyakurya vinandi vikafwa, ndipo ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵakatondeka kulima mbuto zawo cifukwa cakuti kukaŵavya vula ndiposo cifukwa cakuti mbanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakaŵa na mbuto zakusunga. Ŵanyake ŵakaŵa na ŵabali awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivyo vikakhwaskika viŵi yayi na suzgo ili, panji ŵakapokeranga chakurya kufuma ku ŵabwana ŵawo. Kweni ŵanandi ŵakathembanga chomene vyakurya ivyo vikaŵa mu minda yawo.[14]

Initial reaction

Pakwamba, boma likakanizgika kupeleka vyakurya chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa vyakurya. Mu Janyuwale, mulara wa boma wa chigaŵa cha Blantyre wakafipa mtima na msika wakuzura wa ufu wa mbuto mu msika wa mu tawuni ya Blantyre, ndipo wakanozga vyakuti mbuto zinyake izo zikaŵa mu sitoro ya boma ziguliskike mu msika uwu. Mu Febuluwale 1949, kazembe wa charu cha Nyasaland wakawona kuti pakukhumbikwira wovwiri unandi yayi. Wakapempha boma la Southern Rhodesia kuti liŵatumire matani 1,000 gha chimanga mwaluŵiro comene, ndipo wakasora munthu munyake wa bizinesi kuti waŵe mulara wa vyakurya mu Africa kuti wawovwirepo pa kupeleka chimanga na vyakurya vinyake.

Mu Febuluwale, kukawa vula yichoko waka, ndipo mu Malichi 1949, kukawa chilangalanga icho chikamara masabata ghanayi. Pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi, cifukwa vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikaŵa mu nthamba za ŵalimi vikaŵa kuti vyamara, ndalama zinandi izo ŵakasunganga zikaŵa kuti zagura vyakurya, ndipo viŵeto vyawo vinandi vikaŵa kuti vyaguliskika. Ŵanandi ŵakendanga pasi mtunda utali kuti ŵakafike ku malo agho kukaŵa vyakurya vyamuthengere. Vinyake mwa vyakumera ivi vikaŵa vyamuthengere, vipasi vinyake, mizu yakurya, vyakumera vichoko, na vyamoyo vinyake. Kanandi wovwiri wa ŵabali awo ŵakaŵa na ndalama zinandi ukamara apo chilangalanga chikalutilira, ndipo ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakaleka ŵawoli ŵawo na mbumba zawo izo ŵakatondekanga kulyeska.

Mu myezi ya Meyi m'paka Seputembala, ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵakapanda mbuto zichoko waka za batata na maniyu, kweni boma likajura malo ghakupangira vyakurya mu Seputembala 1949. Ŵakachitanga kuguliska vyakurya ivi pa mtengo wa malita ghatatu pa kilo limoza, ndipo mbumba zikaguranga malita ghankhondi pa sabata. Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵambura ndalama, nanga ni ŵanakazi awo ŵafumu ŵawo ŵakaŵaleka, ŵakeneranga kugwira nchito kuti ŵasange cakurya, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵacekuru na ŵakavu ndiwo ŵakapikanga cakurya. Pakwamba, malo agha ghakapelekanga mbuto zose za mbuto izo zikeneranga kuphatika, kweni mu Janyuwale 1950, malo ghanyake ghakapelekanga mbuto zakunozgeka kuphatika, cifukwa ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵakulopwa comene kuti ŵayiphatike.[15]

Climax

Nangauli boma likapeleka vyakurya, kweni mu Disembala 1949 na Janyuwale 1950, ŵanthu ŵanandi mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na suzgo likuru chomene, comenecomene ŵana na ŵacekuru, ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa cakurya cakukwana. Ŵakaŵa na misasa yinyake iyo ŵakaŵasambizganga ŵanthu ŵacekuru na ŵakavu kuti ŵaryenge mphoza kaŵiri pa zuŵa. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 200 ŵakafwa na njara. Ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa na njara ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene kuluska awo ŵakafwanga na njara, chifukwa njara yikuru yikaŵaso mu chigaŵa ichi.

Boma likapelekanga mbuto za tirigu na makuni gha cassava kwawanangwa ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nkhongono zakuseŵa, ndipo mu 1950 ŵakapambika vyakurya vinandi nangauli ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵakulopwa. Mu nyengo ya kulima mu 1950-51, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulima mbuto ya maniyu iyo yikukoma yayi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na njara yikuru ŵakatora vyaka vinandi kuti ŵamazge njara na kuwezga ngongoli zawo. Ŵanalume awo ŵakaleka mbumba zawo panji ŵabali ŵawo awo ŵakakana kovwira mbumba izo zikaŵa mu suzgo, masuzgo agha ghakatora vyaka vinandi.

Social differences

Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Africa na ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu boma awo ŵakapokeranga malipiro ghawemi, awo ŵakaŵa na ndalama zinandi, ŵakakhwaskika viŵi yayi na njara iyi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za mawoko na ŵamalonda kweniso awo ŵakugwira ntchito za malipiro ghacoko, ŵakakhwaskika comene cifukwa cakuti ŵamalonda ŵakakhumbanga comene kurya vyakurya, panji nchito yikamara.

Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵakendanga makora cifukwa ca ndalama izo ŵakaŵa nazo, vyakurya, viŵeto, na vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo yakale, mbumba izo zikalongozgekanga na ŵanakazi, kusazgapo vyokoro na ŵawoli awo ŵakaŵaleka, zikaŵa ŵakavu comene mu cikaya, ndipo zikaŵavya malo. Kanandi ŵakagwiranga ntchito zinyake nga nkhuphika moŵa panji kurya chakurya kuti ŵagwire ntchito. Ŵanakazi aŵa na mbumba zawo ŵakaŵavya wovwiri wa ŵabali ŵawo. Kweni mbumba zinandi za ŵantchito ŵakusamukira ku vyaru vinyake zikapokeranga ndalama kufuma ku ŵafumu ŵawo awo ŵakaŵavya.[16]

Relief measures

A slow start

Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Africa na ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu boma awo ŵakapokeranga malipiro ghawemi, awo ŵakaŵa na ndalama zinandi, ŵakakhwaskika viŵi yayi na njara iyi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za mawoko na ŵamalonda kweniso awo ŵakugwira ntchito za malipiro ghacoko, ŵakakhwaskika comene cifukwa cakuti ŵamalonda ŵakakhumbanga comene kurya vyakurya, panji nchito yikamara.

Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵakendanga makora cifukwa ca ndalama izo ŵakaŵa nazo, vyakurya, viŵeto, na vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo yakale, mbumba izo zikalongozgekanga na ŵanakazi, kusazgapo vyokoro na ŵawoli awo ŵakaŵaleka, zikaŵa ŵakavu comene mu cikaya, ndipo zikaŵavya malo. Kanandi ŵakagwiranga ntchito zinyake nga nkhuphika moŵa panji kurya chakurya kuti ŵagwire ntchito. Ŵanakazi aŵa na mbumba zawo ŵakaŵavya wovwiri wa ŵabali ŵawo. Kweni mbumba zinandi za ŵantchito ŵakusamukira ku vyaru vinyake zikapokeranga ndalama kufuma ku ŵafumu ŵawo awo ŵakaŵavya.[17]

Government actions

Kazembe Sir Geoffrey Francis Taylor Colby wakayowoya kuti vyakurya ivi vikwenera kugwiliskirika nchito pakovwira ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari. Iyo wakafipanga mtima comene kuti para ŵanthu ŵasangenge vyakurya mu malo ghakupharazgirako vyakurya, ŵangaleka kujipwelelera.

Vinthu vikasintha comene cifukwa ca chilangalanga ico cikacitika mu 1948-49 cifukwa cakuti boma likutondeka kusunga vyakurya panji kupeleka wovwiri mwaluŵiro. Nangauli njara yikuru yaumaliro yikaŵa mu 1922, kweni mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa njara ya vyakurya, comenecomene mu cigaŵa ca Blantyre mu 1939, 1941 na 1947. Ŵanthu ŵakakanizganga kuŵika vyakurya mu malo ghawo cifukwa cakuti boma la Nyasaland likaŵavya ndalama zinandi, kweniso ŵakagomezganga kuti vyakurya vya boma vingapangiska ŵalimi kuti ŵaleke kusunga vyakurya vyawo.[18]

After 1949

Boma likasintha apo kukaŵa njara mu 1949, ndipo Kazembe Colby wakacitapo kanthu kuti njara iyi yileke kucitikaso. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakukondweska: Padera pa kuzenga malo ghakusungirako vyakurya, wakaphalira Komiti ya Kulaŵilira Vyakurya kuti yikwezge mtengo wa vyakurya ivi. Kweniso wakapempha awo ŵakaŵa na minda kuti ŵalimenge mbuto za ŵantchito ŵawo pa malo ghawo m'malo mwa kugura kwa ŵalimi ŵachoko. Kuti ŵaleke kusuzgika chomene na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa gha Ŵabwenye, boma likamba kugura malo ghanandi mu malo agha.

Cakwamba pa vigaŵa viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa vyakukayikiska, cikaŵa kucepeskako mtengo uwo Native Tobacco Board yikapelekanga pa hona uyo wakakulika pa malo gha Native Trust. Mulara wa boma wakakhumbanga kuchepeska unandi wa hona uyo wakupangika uku wakuŵa muwemi chomene. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵanandi awo ŵakaliskanga hona ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi, ndipo pa nyengo yicoko waka, ŵakasazgirako comene vipasi. Pakwamba kwa m'ma 1950, ŵaliska ŵa hona ŵakakanizgika kulembeska ŵanthu awo ŵakupanda hona.

Caciŵiri, ndondomeko ya vyakurya iyo kazembe wakasachizga yikaŵa ya kwimika ŵalara ŵa boma kuti ŵakhazikiske malango ghakukhwaskana na kuvikilira nthaka na kugwiliskira nchito malo. Nangauli uyo wakambiska ndondomeko iyi wakayowoya kuti njakukhumbikwa comene kuti paleke kuŵa soka la cilengiwa, kweni pamanyuma pake fundo iyi yikususkika ndipo m'paka mu ma 1980, dongo likalutilira kuŵa lakukwana mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici.[19][20]

Ivyo vikambiska njara

Views in 1949

Nangauli cifukwa cakuzirwa comene ico cikapangiska kuti vyakurya vileke kureka kureka kureka mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Shire Highlands cikaŵa cifukwa cakuti kukaŵavya vula mu nyengo ya kulima, kweni pali vifukwa vinyake ivyo vikapangiska njara iyi. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika pamasinda wakalongora kuti pali kukayikira usange vinthu ivi vikachitikanga nadi.

Nanga ni mu 1949, Dipatimenti ya Vyakumera ya ku Nyasaland yikaŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera pa nkhani ya vyakurya vya ku Africa, ndipo yikayowoyerathu kuti usange vyakurya ivi vingaleka kugwira ntchito, mbwenu mbwenu vyakurya ivi vizamumara mwaluŵiro. Mu 1998, dongo likati lakhalako nyengo yitali, likaŵa na vyakumera vyakukwana na vyakurya vyakukwana.

Fundo yinyake iyo yikayowoyanga kuti ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵali na mulandu wa kulima hona. Ŵanthu ŵakakuranga hona pachoko waka mu malo gha Shire Highlands, chifukwa chakuti khoti la Native Tobacco Board likakanizganga, ndipo likakwesananga na hona uyo wakakulika mu malo gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ŵalimi awo ŵakaŵa na minda yinandi mu chigaŵa ichi ndiwo ŵakaleranga hona.

Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo gha ŵanthu ŵekha, kanandi ŵakakuranga hona na vyakurya vinyake kuti ŵapeleke ndalama zakugulira nyumba. Malo ghanyake ghakurughakuru ghakasakaza dongo chifukwa cha kukhumba kusanga ndalama mwaluŵiro. Kafukufuku uyo boma likachita wakalongora kuti malo ghanandi ghakasakazika na kudelera makuni. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa na malo ghakurughakuru kuti ŵalyeske mbumba zawo na kulima vyakurya.[21]

Underdevelopment theories

Nyasaland has been described as an Imperial Slum,[22] or as a failed Colonial State[23] by two leading proponents of the underdevelopment view of colonialism. The imposition of rents on tenants on private estates and underpayment for the produce of smallholders, together with taxes on both groups, certainly constituted a significant burden on African farmers. However, in the economic boom of the 1940s, these impositions were less significant than in earlier periods.[24]

Both Vail and Mandala suggest that the Imperial government showed little interest in Nyasaland, a country without valuable resources but with heavy administration costs. These authors concentrate on the period before 1939, when government revenue was low, with much of it coming from taxes on Africans, and mostly absorbed in routine administration costs, leaving very little available for development. Both also concentrate on the inefficiency and perceived high cost of the protectorate's transport system.[25][26]

However, Vail's argument that the cost of railway links impoverished the country, preventing the government from promoting efficient peasant agriculture[27] is overstated for the latter part of the half-century he covers. The Nyasaland government only had to pay interest and repay capital on the loans for constructing the Trans-Zambezia Railway or Zambezi Bridge if its revenues exceeded target figures. During the period 1930 to 1947, it only paid interest in 1936 and repaid no capital at all. All the accrued liabilities passed to the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953.[28][29]

Coping strategies

Chifukwa cha njara iyo yikaŵapo pambere charu chindambe kulamulira, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghana nthowa zinandi zakumazgira njara. Mu vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa, ŵalimi ŵakakuranga vyakurya ivyo vikakhumbikwiranga mbumba zawo, ndipo viŵaro vichoko waka ivyo vikaŵapo ŵakavisunganga, kuvisinthiska na viŵeto, panji kuvipeleka ku ŵanthu awo ŵakathembanga. Njira zakale zikasazgikiranga na kugwiliskira nchito ndarama zakukwana kuti munthu wasange cakurya cakukwana, kwali wakasanganga mwakudunjika, kwali wakuluta na ŵabali ŵake awo ŵakugwira nchito ku caru cinyake panji wakubwereka.

Mu 1949, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa zinyake, nga ni kulima vyakurya ivyo vikutonda chilangalanga nga ni mphoza, maniyu, panji mbatata para vyakurya vyambininika. Ndipouli, boma likakanizga kulima mphoza na mphoza cifukwa ca ndondomeko ya vyakurya iyo yikaŵa na boma. Nangauli fundo izi zikaŵako pambere njara ya mu 1949 yindacitike, kweni zikaŵa kuti zindachepeskeko.

Vinthu ivi vikawovwira ŵanthu awo ŵakakhwaskika na njara ya mu 1949, comenecomene mu nyengo yakwambilira. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika chomene, nga mbalara panji ŵakupendera, ŵanakazi ŵambura kutora panji kutengwa, na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵalije wovwiri wa mbumba, ŵakatondekanga kuchita nthena.

Magulu ghambura kuvikilirika

Mu 1949, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Nyasaland ŵakasuzgikanga na njara yayi, panji ŵakaŵavya njara. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzgika comene cifukwa ca njara iyi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakababika mu nyengo iyo caru cikaŵa pasi pa boma. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵanalume awo ŵakachimbizgika mu nyumba zawo, vyokoro na ŵawoli awo ŵakaŵa na ŵana, awo ŵakatondekanga kulima malo ghakukwana, kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito yayi.

Kuyana na umo Amartya Sen wakayowoyera, ŵanthu awo ŵakusoŵa pakukora ŵakasoŵa cakurya panji ŵakasoŵa cakurya cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu. Mu 1949, ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu charu cha Nyasaland, nga ni ŵasilikari, ŵapolisi, ŵantchito ŵanyake na ŵateŵeti ŵa pa nyumba, ŵakapokeranga chakurya pa mtengo uwemi. Ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu matawuni ghakurughakuru ŵakasanganga chakurya chakukwana, ndipo mabanja gha ŵantchito awo ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake, kanandi ŵakapokeranga ndalama izo zikaŵavikiliranga.

Ndipouli, mu 1949, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakathembanga chomene ulimi, vyakurya yayi panji ndalama. Mu vyaka vyakumanyuma, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kopa kuti malo ghaŵenge ghakusuzga kulima. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni mu vyaka 30 pamanyuma pa njara, ŵalimi ŵachoko ŵakamba kulima minda yichoko waka na kusazgirako chomene vyakurya vya mbuto. Ici cikung'anamura kuti caru cikaŵa cakukwana yayi panji kuti cikendeskekanga makora yayi.

Kuŵavya chakurya mu Malawi

Mu vyaka pafupifupi 30 kufuma apo kukaŵa njara mu 1949, mu caru ici mukaŵavya chilangalanga chikuru ndipo ŵalimi ŵakakwaniska kusama na kutorako malo ghacoko na kusazgirako comene vyakurya vya mbuto na vyakurya vinyake. Pakati pa 1950 na 1979, vyakurya ivyo vikapokeka pa chaka vikaluska ivyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito, kupaturako mu 1963, 1970, 1975 na 1976. Ndipouli, mu 1980, suzgo la vyakurya likakura comene mu caru ici, ndipo likapangiska kuti mu Malawi muŵe suzgo la vyakurya.

Nyengo yiheni iyo yikaŵako mu 1980, 1990, 1997 na 1998 yikapangiska kuti vyakurya vichepeko, kweni njara yikaleka. Mu 1997 na 1998, njara yikamara cifukwa cakuti boma likafumiska vyakurya ivyo likasunga na kugura vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Kweni mu 2001 na 2002, apo vuna yikaŵa yiheni yayi nga umo yikaŵira mu 1997 panji 1998, njara yikakura comene cifukwa ca kucepa kwa vyakurya ivyo vikaŵa mu malo agha kweniso cifukwa ca kucedwa kwa kunozga vyakurya.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 na 2000, mu Malawi mukaŵa njara yikuru ya vyakurya, ndipo masuzgo ghanandi agho ghakaŵapo ghakaŵa ghakuyana waka na agho ghakaŵako mu 1949. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa nga ni kulima hona na vyakurya vinyake vyambura chakurya, ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi awo ŵakaŵa ŵakavu kweniso ŵambura malo, awo ŵakagwiranga waka ntchito zinyake, kweniso boma likakanizganga kulima na kuguliska vyakurya vinyake. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, nga ni mu 1949, cifukwa cakuti mu caru mukaŵa vyakurya vinandi yayi kweniso vinthu vikizanga luŵiro yayi. Nanga ni fundo yakuti dongo likuleka kupambika makora mu 1949, kweniso kuti kuswa kwa dongo kukulutilira, yikaŵa yaunenesko mu 1992, apo kulima kwa mathipa kukafika mu mapiri na mu malo ghakukhora gha mu Dambo la Rift, uko kuswa kwa dongo kukaŵa kwakukhumbikwa..[30]

Ukaboni

  1. ↑ Vaughan (1987).
  2. ↑ Kettlewell (1965).
  3. ↑ Vaughan (1987).
  4. ↑ McCracken (2012), p. 14.
  5. ↑ Hulme (1996), p.9
  6. ↑ Rasmusson (1987), p. 10.
  7. ↑ Mwakasungura (1986), p. 43.
  8. ↑ Iliffe, (1985) p. 276.
  9. ↑ Jayne, Jones and others (1987), p. 217.
  10. ↑ Thompson and Woodfall (1956), p. 138.
  11. ↑ Morris (2016), pp. 92, 95, 130-1.
  12. ↑ Morris (2016), p. 217.
  13. ↑ Vaughan (1992), p. 72.
  14. ↑ Vaughan (1992), pp. 73-4.
  15. ↑ Vaughan (1992), p. 80.
  16. ↑ Vaughan (1992), pp. 84-5.
  17. ↑ Baker (1994), pp. 192-4.
  18. ↑ Nyasaland Government (1946), Annexe p. 90.
  19. ↑ Bishop (1995), pp 61-2, 67-8.
  20. ↑ Snapp (1998), pp. 2572-88.
  21. ↑ White (1987), pp. 206-8.
  22. ↑ Vail (1975), p. 89.
  23. ↑ Mandala (2006), pp. 505.
  24. ↑ Baker (1975), pp. 56-8.
  25. ↑ Vail (1975), pp. 103-4, 112.
  26. ↑ Mandala (2006), pp. 519-20.
  27. ↑ Vail (1975), pp. 104, 108-9.
  28. ↑ Irvine (1959), pp. 181-2.
  29. ↑ Nyasaland Protectorate (1946), pp. 39, 66-7.
  30. ↑ Young (2000), pp. 243-4.

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