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Makhoti ghamu Malaŵi

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Mu Malaŵi, makhoti ghakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Makhoti Ghakuthupi panji Makhoti Ghakunozgekera (Local Courts) ghakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900 kuti ghapwelelerenge pa milandu ya ŵanthu na kususka milandu. Kwambira mu 1970, makhoti gha vigaŵa ghakaŵako ndipo ghakapika mazaza pa milandu yose ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi.

Makhoti ghakale ghakeneranga kulondezga malango gha mu Africa, nangauli ghakaŵa na malango ghakutemwera, ghakukanizga, na ghakukanizga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 na 1980, makhoti agha ghakaŵa na mbiri yakuti ghakaŵasuzganga awo ŵakasuskanga Banda. Pamanyuma pa kuwezgerapo ndyali za vyaru vinandi, makhoti gha vigaŵa na khoti lakwamba la apilu ghakamara mu 1993.

Makhoti ghanandi ghakale ghakazgoka makhoti gha ŵeruzgi, ndipo ghakaŵanga na wanangwa wakulondezga malango gha cikaya. Dango la Malawi la 1994 likati malango gha cikaya ni cigaŵa ca malango ndipo likati makhoti gha cikaya ghaŵe na mazaza ghachoko pa milandu ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu na ya milandu yichoko waka, kweni pakaŵavya malango agho ghakakhazikiska makhoti agha mpaka mu 2011. Mu Febuluwale 2011, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Malawi yikazomerezga dango lakuti makhoti ghakulondezga malango gha ku malo agha ghaŵeso na milandu yinandi ya ŵanthu na milandu yinyake yichoko waka.[1] Pa Meyi 2017, malango agha ghakaŵa kuti ghandambe kugwira ntchito chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama.

Mbiri ya malango gha kakhaliro

Mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, malango gha mu Africa ghakaŵa na malango ghakwendera. Dango la cikaya la ku Africa likuyowoya comene za kumazga mphindano kuluska kulanga ŵanthu awo ŵabuda. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, malango ghakulondezga maluso gha ŵanthu ghakumanyikwa makora yayi kuti ni vigeŵenga. Ndipouli, milandu yinyake, nga ni kukoma ŵapapi, kucita uleŵi, panji ufwiti, yikaŵa yikuru comene mwakuti yikawonekanga nga ni milandu yakwimikana na ŵanthu.[2] Nangauli nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga kuti dango ili likaŵa dango yayi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Africa nga ni Eugene Cotran ŵakulongora kuti likaŵa nadi dango. Cotran wakalongoraso kuti nangauli ŵanthu ŵakuŵa pa maungano ghakupambanapambana, kweni maungano gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuwungana kuti ŵachitenge malango gha cikaya ni makhoti. Ndipouli, mu nyengo ya ukoloni, dango la Cingelezi na ndondomeko za malango vikamba kusangika ndipo vikamba kuŵa vyakukhumbikwa comene kuluska dango la cikaya, ilo likamanyikwanga kuti "dango la cikaya", "dango la cikaya", panji "dango la cikaya". Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe nawo ŵakakhumbanga kuti malango agha ghaŵe ghakukhora.[3]

Kwambira mu 1902, dango la Chingelezi ndilo likaŵa dango lakwamba mu charu cha Nyasaland. Dango la cikaya likazomerezgekanga (kweni likaŵa lakukhumbikwa yayi) mu milandu iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, usange dango panji kaluso aka kakususkana yayi na malango gha ku England. Ŵanthu ŵakatenge nkharo iyi njakukwiyiska pa vigaŵa vitatu. Pakuti dango la cikaya likaŵa lakukanizgika mu vigaŵa ivi, ŵalongozgi awo ŵakalondezganga dango ili ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi yayi. Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, boma ili likagaŵika mu vigaŵa, ndipo mu chigaŵa chilichose mukaŵa Mulara wa Ndalama (uyo pamasinda wakachemekanga District Commissioner). Pakwamba, mazaza gha ŵalongozgi ghakaŵa ghacoko comene mwakuti Ŵakusonkha ndiwo ŵakawusanga. Ŵalongozgi awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi na ŵalongozgi awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghachoko, ndiwo ŵakendeskanga vinthu pakati pa boma na ŵanthu. Mu 1933, boma likamba kulamulira ŵanthu mwakudunjika yayi, ndipo ŵalongozgi na makhoti ghawo ghakazgoka maboma gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ndipouli, makhoti agho ghakaŵako mu 1933, ghakaŵa ghakumanyikwa kuti ghakulondezga malango gha cikaya, comenecomene pa nkhani za nthengwa, kuhara, na za wanangwa wa kugwiliskira nchito malo. Makhoti agha ghakaŵa ghapusu na ghamabuchi, ndipo dango la mu 1933 likakanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakweruzgika kuti ŵaleke kwendera malango.[4]

Martin Chanock wakayowoya kuti, cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu na vya cuma, ŵanalume ŵalara mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa ŵakakhumbanga kuŵika dango lakudunjika pa malango gha cikaya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakamba kuwona dango lakwendera malango agha kuti ni nthowa yakulangira m'malo mwa kuphalirako ŵanyawo. Kweniso fundo iyi ndiyo yikapangiska nduna yikuru ya ku Malawi, Banda, na nduna ya vya malango Orton Chirwa kususka fundo za mu Chingelezi nga ni fundo yakuti munthu ni murunji yayi. Kuzakafika mu 1969, Aleke Banda, nduna ya vya ndalama, wakasuska mwawanangwa fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge ntchito ya loya na kuvikilira ŵanyawo. Dr. Banda wakayaniska dango lakwamba na cilango, ndipo wakati para palije ukaboni, mbukaboni yayi wakuti munthu ni murunji.[5]

Makhoti ghakumanyikwa

Pambere charu chindambe kujiyimira paŵekha mu 1964, mu 1962, khoti linyake likasintha malango gha khoti la mu 1933. Pamanyuma pa wanangwa, dango ili likasinthika zina kuŵa Dango la Makhoti Ghakale, 1962. Makhoti gha mu vigaŵa agha ghakaŵa ghekha yayi, nga umo vikaŵira na malango gha mu 1933. Dango ili likawovwira kuti mulandu uwu weruzgike mwaurunji, kweniso kuti munthu waŵe na wanangwa wa kuzenga mulandu ku khoti likuru. Dango la mu 1962 likati dango lakwendera maluso likwenera kugwira ntchito pekha usange ndakukolerana na malango ghanyake ghakulembeka. Dango ili likalongosora makora kuti pa milandu ya kuswa malango, makhoti agha ghakeneranga kulondezga malango gha malango agho ghakaŵako kale, m'malo mwa malango gha malango gha malango gha malango gha malango gha ŵanthu. Dango la mu 1963 likapeleka wanangwa wakuti ŵakweruzgika mwakuyana na maghanoghano gha khoti. Kweniso mu 1962, ŵeruzgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakaleka kuŵa na mazaza ndipo ŵakaloŵeskeka na ŵeruzgi awo ŵakasambizgika malango.[6][7]

Kufuma mu 1970, Dango la 1969 (Local Courts (Amendment) Act) likasintha ndondomeko ya makhoti. Likakhazikiska makhoti ghatatu gha vigaŵa na khoti lakwamba la apilu ilo likaŵa pachanya pa makhoti gha vigaŵa viŵiri agho ghakakhazikiskika na Dango la mu 1962, ndipo likaŵapa mazaza ghakweruzgira milandu (kusazgapo milandu yose ya kukoma ŵanthu na ya upusikizgi iyo yikakhwaska ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa). Makhoti ghanthena agha ghakaŵa gha vigaŵa viŵiri, makhoti ghakupambanapambana gha ku malo agha, makhoti ghakupambanapambana gha ku malo agha, na makhoti ghakupambanapambana gha ku malo agha. Pa milandu yose iyi, khoti ili likaŵa na mazaza pa milandu ya ŵanthu wose kweniso ya milandu ya vigeŵenga. Nangauli malango gha mulandu agho ghakalembeka mu Dango la ku Malawi, agho ghakafuma mu dango la mu 1930 ghakaŵa ghambura kusintha ndipo ghakaŵa ghakukolerana na Khoti Likuru na makhoti ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu wose, kweni milandu yikenderanga mwakupambana mu makhoti agha. Makhoti ghakumanyikwa ghakugwiliskira nchito waka vigaŵa vya dango la milandu ivyo mulaŵiliri wa vya urunji wakalangura ndipo ghali na ndondomeko yawo. Iwo ŵakalondezganga yayi malango ghakuyana na agho khoti likulondezga, kweni ŵakalondezganga malango gha mu vigaŵa vyawo. Kanandi ŵakweruzgika pa khoti ilo ŵakasankhanga yayi.[8]

TPulezidenti wa Malawi na Chief Traditional Courts Commissioner ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga makhoti agha na kughanaghanirapo milandu, ndipo maloya ghakazomerezgekanga yayi kuvikilira ŵanthu awo ŵakakika. Nangauli pakaŵavya wanangwa wakudandawura ku Khoti Likuru, kweni nduna ya vyeruzgo ndiyo yikadandawura ku Khoti Likuru la Vyakudandawura. Ŵakumangalika ŵakaŵa na wanangwa yayi wa kuchema ŵakaboni. Ŵeruzgi ndiwo ŵakasankha (mu nkhani ya Chirwas, ŵakakana), ndipo ŵakapika yayi fundo zakudumura za ivyo ŵakayimbikira mulandu pambere mulandu undayezgeke. Vinthu ivi vikawuskapo fundo zinyake za urunji izo zikaŵa mu Dango la mu 1962, ndipo (mu vigaŵa vinyake) vikawelera ku malango agho ghakaŵa mu Dango la mu 1933.[9] Kwambira mu Novembala 1971, Dango la Makhoti Ghakutemwera, likazomerezga Nduna ya vya Malango kuti yilongozge kuti makhoti ghanyake gha Chikaya ghategherezge milandu iyo waliyose panji wose awo ŵakususkana nayo mba ku Africa yayi. Dango ili likayowoyangaso kuti mulandu uliwose wa ku khoti la kaluso ungakanikaso yayi pa apilu cifukwa ca suzgo la ndondomeko, ndiposo kuti Chief Traditional Courts Commissioner ndiyo wakweruzgenge nkhani yiliyose yakususkana na dango la "kweruzga mwaurunji" kwambura kughanaghanira vya malango. Nangauli makhoti ghakumanyikwa kuti ghakulondezga malango gha ku Malawi, kweni ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa kuchita nthena mwakuyana na malango gha mu charu ichi. Pa khoti lililose pakaŵa mulongozgi, uyo kanandi wakaŵa mulongozgi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵatatu (ŵalongozgi) awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵeruzgi, na loya yumoza. Ŵalara ŵa makhoti na awo ŵakeruzganga milandu, awo ŵakeneranga kuchindikika na kumanya makora malango gha mu chigaŵa icho khoti ili likenderanga, ŵakimikikanga na Nduna ya vya Malango, Banda. Mubali uyo wakaŵa mulara wa makhoti ghakurughakuru na mulara wa makhoti ghakurughakuru mu vigaŵa ivi, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na mulongozgi wa chigaŵa cha Malawi Congress Party, ŵakamuphalira kuti waŵasankhe. Ndondomeko iyi yikawovwiranga kuti awo ŵimikika ŵachitenge vinthu mwakukolerana na fundo za boma.

Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti dango ili likapangika mu 1969 cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskanga ndondomeko ya vyeruzgo, pamanyuma pakuti boma likutondeka kupeleka cilango pa mulandu wakwamba wa kukoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Chilobwe, kweni ndondomeko iyo yikaŵapo yikaŵa kuti yikususkika kale.[10][11] Banda wakagwiliskiranga ntchito makhoti ghanandi kuti wakhazikiske ndondomeko ya malango mu Malawi. Paumaliro, makhoti ghakazgoka nthowa yikuru yakulondezgera malango mu Malawi. Mu makhoti agha, ŵapolisi ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi kuluska mu makhoti ghapachanya.[12]

Milandu Yikuru ya ku Khoti la Chikaya

Milandu yiŵiri yikuru yikulongora umo makhoti ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu ghakaŵawovwilira kuti ŵaleke kuyowoya na awo ŵakususka boma la Banda. Panyake suzgo likuru comene ilo likapangiska kuti makhoti gha malango gha mu Malawi ghaleke kwendera malango agha likaŵa mu 1976 apo Albert Muwalo (uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Albert Muwalo Nqumayo), Secretary General wa Malawi Congress Party na Focus Gwede, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi, ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakayezga kukoma Pulezidenti Banda. Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakakolerananga comene na ndyali za boma izo zikaŵa na nkhaza comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970, kweni mulandu wawo ukaŵa wakuti ŵakakhumbanga kuwiskira pasi boma ili. Banda wakayowoya kuti para munthu wakukhumba kupoka boma wakwenera kuyowoya waka, kweni pakaŵavya ukaboni wakuti munthu uyu wakachita nadi nthena. Ukaboni wakukwana wakususkana na ŵanalume aŵa ukaŵa wakuti ŵakaŵa na vilwero. Ndipouli, khoti ili likazomerezga makalata ghatatu ghambura maukaboni agho ghakaŵasuskanga ŵanalume aŵa. Kuti wamanye chifukwa cha mulandu uwu, khoti likati Muwalo wakaŵa na vithuzi vya ŵaminisitala awo ŵakachimbira ku Malawi pamanyuma pa suzgo la nduna za boma mu 1964 na mabuku agho khoti likati ghakaŵa ghakubendera boma. Khoti likati para munthu wali waka na vithuzi vya ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma la Malawi, ndikuti ni muwukirano. Pakaŵaso "ukaboni" ucoko comene wakususkana na Gwede, kweni wose ŵaŵiri ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca upusikizgi. Muwalo wakapayikika, kweni Gwede ŵakamulekelera ndipo wakakhala mu jere mpaka mu 1993.[13]

Nkhani ya Orton Chirwa na muwoli wake, Vera, nayo yikalongora kuti ndondomeko iyi njambura urunji. Paumaliro wa mulandu uwu mu 1983, ŵeruzgi ŵacoko waka awo ŵakaŵa na luso lwa vya malango, ŵakasuska ivyo khoti likadumura, kweni ŵeruzgi ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali ŵakakana. Nkhani iyi yikakhwaska Chirwa, uyo wakaŵa loya ndipo wakaŵa nduna ya vya malango mpaka apo boma likakanizgikira mu 1964. Wakacimbira ku Malawi kuya ku Tanzania, uko wakazenga cipani ca ndyali pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga. Pa nyengo iyo ŵakeruzgikanga, ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakakoleka ku Zambia mu Disembala 1981. Ici, pamoza na mulandu wakuti ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵathereske boma kuwaro kwa Malaŵi, vikeneranga kuti vikang'anamuranga kuti makhoti ghakurughakuru ghakaŵa na mazaza yayi. Mulandu uwu mphanyi ukaŵa kuti uchali ku Khoti Likuru ku Malawi, kweni khoti ili likakhumbanga ukaboni wakuti wali na mulandu. Mulandu wakususkana na boma uwo khoti la Southern Region Traditional Court likadumura mu 1983, ukajintha pa malemba agho ŵakasanga apo ŵakakakika, kweniso ukaboni wa wapolisi wakuti malemba agha ghakalembeka na Orton Chirwa. Mazgu agho Orton Chirwa wakalemba, agho ŵakaghanaghana kuti ghakaŵa ghambura kulembeka, kweniso nkhani iyo wakalemba pa tepi, nayo ghakaŵa ukaboni. Ŵa Chirwa ŵakazomerezgeka yayi kuchema ŵakaboni ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo wose ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakomeke. Pa apilu ku National Traditional Court of Appeal, khoti lakwamba likakana kuzomerezga ŵakaboni ŵa kuvikilira, kuzomerezga mazgu ghambura kulembeka na kuzomerezga wapolisi kuŵa kaboni, ndipo ŵeruzgi ŵachoko waka ŵakazomera yayi kuti kupanga malemba ghambura kulembeka na mawoko ghakaŵa nga ni usambazi. Kweniso khoti la apilu likati nangauli makhoti ghakumanyikwa na malango ghakupambana, kweni ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa kweruzga ŵa Chirwa. Kweni Orton Chirwa wakafwira mu jere mu 1992. Vera Chirwa wakafuma mu jere mu 1993 pamanyuma pa kukhala mu jere vyaka vyakujumpha 11, ndipo nyengo zinandi wakaŵanga yekha.[14]

Kusintha kwa mu 1994

Pa nyengo ya kusintha kwa demokilase, mu Okutobala 1993, loya mukuru wa boma wakalekeska ntchito ya makhoti ghatatu gha chigaŵa na khoti lakwamba la apilu. Kulekerathu nchito yawo kwa nyengo yitali kukaŵa nga ni para ŵamara. Pa Meyi 18, 1994, Dango liphya likati lanjira ntchito, likakhazikiska makhoti agho ghakapulikizganga milandu yakukhwaskana na malango gha cikaya. Ŵalongozgi ŵa makhoti ghakurughakuru ŵakimikika kuŵa ŵeruzgi ndipo makhoti ghawo ghakazgoka makhoti gha ŵeruzgi. Makhoti ghanandi ghakale agho ghakazgoka makhoti gha ŵeruzgi ghakaleka kugwira ntchito. Dango la 1994 likazomerezga kuti malango gha kakhaliro ndi chigaŵa chakukhumbikwa mu ndondomeko ya malango ndipo likapeleka malango gha kakhaliro agho ghangaŵa na mazaza ghachoko pa milandu ya wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa. Kweni pambere chaka cha 2011 chindafike, pakaŵavya malango agho ghakapanga makhoti agha.[15][16]

Ndondomeko ya Khoti la M'zipatala ya 2011

Mu 2007, boma la Malawi likakhazikiska komiti kuti yiwoneso usange vingachitika kuti makhoti ghakulondezga malango gha mu charu ghaŵeso. Boma likati lamara kughanaghanirapo fundo izi, likapeleka dango lakuti makhoti gha mu vigaŵa ghaŵikengepo milandu yinyake. Mu 2011, khoti la ku malo likapanga makhoti gha ku malo agho ghakupwelelera chomene milandu ya kusesa kweniso kusesa. Ŵandyali na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakususka dango ili, ndipo ŵakuliwona nga ni ndondomeko ya makhoti gha Kangaroo agho ghangagwiliskirika nchito pa nkhani za ndyali. Ibrahim Matola wa United Democratic Front wakati makhoti ghapelekenge mazaza ghanandi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ndipo ghangasintha kuŵa "ndondomeko ya nkhaza". Mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka John Tembo wakususka ndondomeko iyi pakuti yikukolerana yayi na demokilase ya vyaru vinandi. Chipani cha Malawi Congress Party nacho chikanena kuti ndondomeko iyi njambura kuzomerezgeka na dango. Mulara wa milandu wa ku Malawi, Anthony Kamanga, wakususka fundo iyi, ndipo wakuti Dango la Malawi likuzomerezga kuti makhoti gha mu vigaŵa vyawo ghagwirenge nchito mwakufupiskako. Nduna ya vya Malango ya ku Malawi, George Chaponda, nayo wakuvikilira dango ili, wakuyowoya kuti milandu yikuru yizamweruzgika yayi na makhoti gha mu charu ichi. Chaponda wakuti mapulani agha ngakutemweka na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Malawi, ndipo awo ŵakumususka ŵakukolerana yayi na umo charu ichi chikambira.[17]

Dango ili likaŵa na makhoti gha vigaŵa viŵiri: makhoti gha chigaŵa agho ghakaŵa mu vigaŵa vyose 27 vya Malawi, chomenechomene ku mizi, na makhoti gha chigaŵa gha apilu. Pa mulandu uwu, khoti likuru likulongozgeka na makhoti gha cigaŵa. Khoti lililose la ku malo agha na la District Appeals Local Court liŵenge na mulaŵiliri, uyo wakwenera kuŵa loya yayi, kweni wali na masambiro ghakwenelera, wakuyowoya makora Cingelezi, ndiposo wakumanya makora malango gha cikaya ndiposo ciyowoyero ca mu cigaŵa ico khoti ili likuteŵetera. Kweniso makhoti gha mu vigaŵa ivi ghakuŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakupeleka ulongozgi pa nkhani ya malango gha cikaya. Uyo wakuwona vya ndalama wakwenera kuŵa na vyaka 50. Makhoti gha ku malo agha ghakaŵavya mazaza pa milandu ya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na malo panji malo ghakukhalapo, kuhara katundu uyo wakeneranga kulongozgeka na ŵabonda, nkhani za ufwiti, panji za udindo wa mulongozgi. Ici cikovwira kuti upusikizgi ulutilire. Ŵanthu ŵakudandawura kuti makhoti gha ku malo agha, agho ghakuchemeka makhoti ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu wose, ghakulipira ndalama zinandi chomene kuti ghamare mphindano.[18]

Umo vinthu viliri kufuma mu 2012

Nangauli Nyumba ya Malamulo yikapeleka dango ili mu mwezi wa Febuluwale mu 2011, kweni pakususkana chomene, pulezidenti Bingu wa Mutharika wakazomerezga kuti dango ili lipelekeke ku Malawi Law Commission, ilo likaŵa kuti lindamalizge kughanaghanirapo apo pulezidenti wakafwira mu Epulero 2012. Purezidenti watsopano Joyce Banda adatsimikizira kuti kuwunikaku kuyenera kupitilirabe koma chisankho cha Purezidenti mu Meyi 2014 cha Peter Mutharika, mchimwene wake wa Bingu wa Mutharika komanso mawu ochokera ku Law Commission akuti palibe cholakwika chilichonse ndi Lamulo la 2011 chidatsiriza kuwunikaku. Ndipouli, nangauli boma la Malaŵi likuwona kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kupeleka ndondomeko ya urunji ku ŵanthu ŵakavu ŵa ku mizi, kweni lilije ndalama zakukwana zakwendeskera ndondomeko iyi.[19]

Ukaboni

  1. ↑ Sonani, Bright (20 January 2011). "Govt to create local courts". The Nation. Blantyre, Malawi. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
  2. ↑ T O Elias, (1972). The Nature of African Customary Law, Manchester University Press, pp. 110-12, 116 . ISBN 978-0-7190-0221-2.
  3. ↑ E Cotran, (1966). The Place and Future of Customary Law in East Africa in East African Law Today, London, British Institute of International and Comparative Law, pp 72, 82-3.
  4. ↑ S Roberts, 1963. A Note on Recent Legal Developments in Nyasaland, Journal of African Law, Vol. 7, No. 3, p. 179.
  5. ↑ M Chanock (1976) Neo Traditionalism and the Customary Law in Malawi, pp. 80-4. https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101608/http://www.jlp.bham.ac.uk/volumes/16/chanock-art.pdf
  6. ↑ S Roberts, 1963. A Note on Recent Legal Developments in Nyasaland, Journal of African Law, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 178-9, 183.
  7. ↑ M Nzunda, (1985). Criminal Law in Internal Conflict of Laws in Malaŵi, Journal of African Law, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 129-30.
  8. ↑ M Nzunda, (1985). Criminal Law in Internal Conflict of Laws in Malaŵi, pp. 138, 140.
  9. ↑ R Carver, (1990). Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, Human Rights Watch, p. 32. ISBN 978-0-929692-73-9.
  10. ↑ Brietzke, Paul (Spring 1974). "Murder and Manslaughter in Malawi's Traditional Courts". Journal of African Law. Cambridge University Press. 18 (1): 37–39. doi:10.1017/S0021855300012687. JSTOR 744872.
  11. ↑ M Chanock (1976) Neo Traditionalism and the Customary Law in Malawi, p. 84. https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101608/http://www.jlp.bham.ac.uk/volumes/16/chanock-art.pdf
  12. ↑ Forster, Peter (August 1, 2001). "Law and Society under a Democratic Dictatorship: Dr. Banda and Malawi". Journal of Asian and African Studies. Brill. 36 (3): 275–293. doi:10.1163/156852101753289610.
  13. ↑ R Carver, (1990). Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, pp. 33-6.
  14. ↑ R Carver, (1990). Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, pp. 37-41.
  15. ↑ F E Kanyongolo, (2006). Malawi: Justice sector and the Rule of Law, Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, pp. 43-6. ISBN 978-1-920051-32-7.
  16. ↑ Siri Gloppen; Fidelis Edge Kanyongolo (2007). "Courts and the poor in Malawi: Economic marginalization, vulnerability, and the law". International Journal of Constitutional Law. Oxford University Press. 5 (2): 258–293. doi:10.1093/icon/mom002.
  17. ↑ Chiumia, Thom (4 February 2011). "Chaponda says Malawians were consulted on Local Courts". Nyasa Times. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
  18. ↑ MANA Online, (2013). https://web.archive.org/web/20181030073210/http://www.manaonline.gov.mw/index.php/national/general/item/1927-trad-courts
  19. ↑ J M Ubink, (2016). Access vs. Justice: Customary Courts and Political Abuse-Lessons from Malawi’s Local Courts Act, University of California School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 2016-57, pp. 748-9, 780-1.
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