Wonani kulemba kwambula kuona kwa Ufumu wa Roma

{{Revision}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Roman Empire
| common_name            = Roman Empire
| native_name            = {{unbulleted list |item3_style=font-size:80%;padding-top:0.15em;line-height:1.15em
 | {{native phrase|la|[[SPQR|Senatus Populusque Romanus]]}}
 | {{native phrase|la|Imperium Romanum{{Efn|Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included ''{{lang|la|Res publica Romana}}'' or ''{{lang|la|Imperium Romanorum}}'' (also in Greek: {{lang|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} – {{grc-tr|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} – ["Dominion ('kingdom' but interpreted as 'empire') of the Romans"] and ''Romania''. ''{{lang|la|Res publica}}'' means Roman "commonwealth"<!--?: Usually,--> and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. ''{{lang|la|Imperium Romanum}}'' (or "{{lang|la|Romanorum}}") refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. ''{{lang|la| Populus Romanus}}'' ("the Roman people") was/is often [[Metonym|used to indicate the Roman state]] in matters involving other nations. The term ''Romania'', initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a [[Collective noun|collective name]] for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolff |first=Robert Lee |author-link=Robert Lee Wolff |date=1948 |title=Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople |volume=23 |pages=1–34, especially 2–3 |journal=Speculum|issue=1 |doi=10.2307/2853672 |jstor=2853672 |s2cid=162802725 }}</ref>}}}}
 | {{native phrase|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων|italics=off}}<br/>{{nobold|{{transliteration|grc|Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn}}}}
}}
| status                 = Empire
| life_span              = {{line-height|1.3em|{{nowrap|27 BC–AD 395 {{nobold|(unified)}}}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morley |first=Neville |title=The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism |date=17 August 2010 |isbn=978-0-7453-2870-6}}; {{Cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed: Revised Edition |date=4 January 2011 |isbn=978-1-101-50200-6 |page=13 |author-link=Jared Diamond}}</ref><br/>{{nowrap|AD 395–476/480 {{nobold|([[Western Roman Empire|Western]])}}}}<br/>{{nowrap|AD 395–1453}} {{nobold|([[Byzantine Empire|Eastern]])}}}}
| p1                     = Roman Republic
| s1                     = Western Roman Empire
| s2                     = Byzantine Empire{{!}}Eastern Roman Empire
| image_flag             = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
| flag_border            = no
| flag_size              = 100px
| flag_type              = ''[[Vexillum]]''<br/>with the imperial ''[[Aquila (Roman)|aquila]]''
| image_coat             = Better Imperial Aquila.png
| coa_size               = 100 px
| symbol_type            = Imperial [[Aquila (Roman)|''aquila'']]
| image_map              = Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png
| image_map_caption      = The Roman Empire in AD 117 at its greatest extent, at the time of [[Trajan]]'s death (with its [[vassal state|vassal]]s in pink){{Sfnp|Bennett|1997}}{{Efn|Fig. 1. Regions east of the [[Euphrates]] river were held only in the years 116–117.}}
| image_map2             = Animated map of the Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.gif
| map_caption2           = The Roman Empire from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire
| capital                = {{plainlist}}
* [[Rome]]<br/>(27 BC–AD 286)
* [[Mediolanum]]<br/>(286–330, [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
* [[Nicomedia]]<br/>(286–330, [[Byzantine Empire|East]])
* [[Constantinople]]<br/>(330–395)
* [[Constantinople]]<br/>{{nowrap|(395–1453, East)}}{{Efn|Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the empire was divided into the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]] – all contenders for the rule of the empire. The Empire of Nicaea is usually considered the "legitimate" continuation of the Roman Empire because it managed to re-take Constantinople.}}
* [[Mediolanum]]<br/>(395–401, [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
* [[Ravenna]]<br/>(401–403, 408–450, 457–461, 475–476, [[Western Roman Empire|West]])
* [[Rome]]<br/>(403–408, 450–457, 461–475, [[Western Roman Empire|West]])<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gillett |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Gillett |date=2001 |title=Rome, Ravenna and the Last Western Emperors |url=https://www.academia.edu/18189525 |journal=Papers of the British School at Rome |volume=69 |doi=10.1017/S0068246200001781 |issn=0068-2462 |pages=131–167 |s2cid=129373675}}</ref>
{{Endplainlist}}
| common_languages       = [[Viyowoyero vya mu Ufumu wa Roma|Regional languages]]
| official_languages     = [[Chilatini]]
| religion               = {{plainlist}}
* [[Roman imperial cult|Imperial cult]]-driven [[Religion in ancient Rome|polytheism]]<br/>(until AD 380; with [[Henotheism|henotheistic]] solar cult of [[Sol Invictus]] from 274–380)
* [[Nicene Christianity]]<br/>([[State church of the Roman Empire|officially]] from AD 380)
{{Endplainlist}}
| government_type        = [[Elective monarchy|Semi-elective]] [[absolute monarchy]] {{small|(de facto)}}
| title_leader           = [[Roman emperor#Titles and positions|Emperor]]
| year_leader1           = {{nowrap|27 BC – AD 14}}
| leader1                = [[Augustus]] (first)
| year_leader2           = 98–117
| leader2                = [[Trajan]]
| year_leader3           = 138–161
| leader3                = [[Antoninus Pius]]
| year_leader4           = 270–275
| leader4                = [[Aurelian]]
| year_leader5           = 284–305
| leader5                = [[Diocletian]]
| year_leader6           = 306–337
| leader6                = [[Constantine I]]
| year_leader7           = 379–395
| leader7                = [[Theodosius I]]{{Efn|The final emperor to rule over all of the Empire's territories before its conversion to a diarchy.}}
| year_leader8           = 474–480
| leader8                = [[Julius Nepos]]{{Efn|Traditionally the final emperor of the Western empire.<!-- Romulus Augustus's reign was never confirmed by the imperial court in Constantinople, thus making him officially a usurper, only Julius Nepos's reign was  legally confirmed until his death in 480. Many historians, wikipedia articles and others sources confirm this -->}}
| year_leader9           = 475–476
| leader9                = [[Romulus Augustus]]
| year_leader10          = 527–565
| leader10               = [[Justinian I]]
| year_leader11          = 610–641
| leader11               = [[Heraclius]]
| year_leader12          = 780–797
| leader12               = [[Constantine VI]]{{Efn|Final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman emperor, including by the surviving empire in the East, the Papacy, and by kingdoms in Western Europe.}}
| year_leader13          = 976–1025
| leader13               = [[Basil II]]
| year_leader14          = 1143–1180
| leader14               = [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]]
| year_leader15          = 1449–1453
| leader15               = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]]<!--(Please retain following for sake of legibility:)-->{{Efn|Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire.}}
| era                    = [[Classical era]] to [[Late Middle Ages]]
| date_pre               = 32–30 BC
| event_pre              = [[War of Actium]]
| year_start             = 30–2 BC
| event_start            = [[Constitutional reforms of Augustus|Empire established]]
| date_event1            = 16 January 27 BC
| event1                 = [[Octavian]] named ''[[augustus (title)|augustus]]''
| date_event2            = 11 May 330
| event2                 = [[Constantinople#306–337|Constantinople]]<br/>becomes capital
| date_event3            = 17 January 395
| event3                 = {{nowrap|[[Western Roman Empire#Further divisions|Final]] [[Greek East and Latin West|East-West]] divide}}
| date_event4            = 4 September 476
| event4                 = [[Deposition of Romulus Augustus]]
| date_event5            = 9 May 480
| event5                 = Murder of [[Julius Nepos]]
| date_event6            = 12 April 1204
| event6                 = [[Fourth Crusade]]
| date_event7            = 25 July 1261
| event7                 = [[Reconquest of Constantinople]]
| year_end               = 1453
| date_end               = 29 May
| event_end              = [[Fall of Constantinople]]
| event_post             = [[Fall of Trebizond]]
| date_post              = 15 August 1461
| stat_year1             = 25 BC
| stat_area1             = 2750000
| stat_pop1              = 56,800,000
| stat_year2             = AD 117
| stat_area2             = 5000000
| stat_pop2              = 
| stat_year3             = AD 390
| stat_area3             = 3400000
| stat_pop3              = 
| currency               = [[sestertius]],{{Efn|Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see [[#Currency and banking]] for currency denominations by period.}} [[aureus]], [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]], [[Solidus (coin)|nomisma]]
| demonym                = [[Roman people|Roman]]
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
| ref_area1              = <ref name="size">{{Cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=1979 |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D |journal=Social Science History |publisher=Duke University Press |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |page=125|jstor=1170959 }}</ref>
| ref_area2              = <ref name="size"/><ref name="East-West">{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |author-link=Peter Turchin |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |date=2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |url=http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |issn=1076-156X |access-date=6 February 2016 |page=222}}</ref>
| ref_area3              = <ref name="size"/>
| ref_pop1               = <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Durand |first=John D. |date=1977 |title=Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=psc_penn_papers |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/1971891 |pages=253–296|jstor=1971891 }}</ref>
}}
'''Ufumu wa Roma''' (Latin: ''Imperium Romanum'' [ɪmˈpɛri.ũː roːˈmaːnũː]; Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν ??ωμαίων, translit. Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) yikaŵa nyengo ya ku Roma. Mu ufumu uwu mukaŵa vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵa kufupi na Nyanja ya Meditereniyani ku [[Europe]], North Africa, na Western Asia. Kufuma apo Kesare Augusto wakambira kuwusa mu ufumu wa Romu m'paka apo ufumu wa Romu ukambira kulamulira mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., msumba uwu ukaŵa wa Italy. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, mafumu ghanandi ghakawusanga Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Msumba wa Roma ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ivi m'paka mu 476 C.E. apo ŵasilikari ŵakatumizga vimanyikwiro vya ufumu ku Constantinople. Chikhristu chikati chazomerezgeka kuŵa tchalitchi la boma la Ufumu wa Roma mu 380 C.E. ndipo Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumanjiliro gha dazi ukathereskeka na mathemba gha ku Germany, vikaŵa nga ni para nyengo yakale yili kumara ndipo nyengo ya ku Middle Ages yikamba. Chifukwa cha ivyo vikachitika, kweniso chifukwa chakuti Ufumu wa Romu wa kumafumiro gha dazi ukazgoka wa Ŵagiriki, ŵanthu ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuyowoya kuti Ufumu wa Romu uwo ukakhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi ukaŵa wa Byzantine.

Ufumu wa Romu, uwo ukaŵa panthazi pa ufumu uwu, ukasuzgika chomene chifukwa cha nkhondo za pawenenawene na viwawa vya ndyali. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., Julius Caesar wakimikika kuŵa ''dictator perpetuo'' ("munthu wakulamulira kwamuyirayira"), ndipo pamanyuma wakakomeka mu 44 B.C.E. Nkhondo za pawenenawene zikalutilira, ndipo paumaliro Octavian wakathereska Mark Antony na Cleopatra pa Nkhondo ya Actium mu 31 BC. Chaka chakulondezgapo, Octavian wakathereska ufumu wa Ptolemaic ku Egypt, ndipo nyengo ya Hellenistic yikamara. Octavian wakaŵaso na mazaza pa ŵanthu wose, ndipo wupu wa ku Rome ukamupa mazaza ghose na zina lakuti Augusto. Vyaru vikuruvikuru vya Romu vikaŵa vyakupambanapambana.

Mu vyaka 200 vyakwambilira vya muwuso wa Ŵaroma, vinthu vikaŵa makora chomene. "Mtende wa Ŵaroma"). Mu nyengo ya Trajan (mu 98-117 C.E.), ufumu wa Roma ukafika pa malo ghakuru chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., Ufumu wa Roma ukakumana na suzgo likuru chomene, chifukwa Ufumu wa Gallic na Palmyrene ukafumako ku ufumu wa Roma. Mu nyengo ya Aurelian (r. 270–275). Kuti wamazge suzgo ili, Diocletian wakimika makhoti ghaŵiri gha ufumu mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Greece na cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Latin mu 286; Ŵakhristu ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. pamanyuma pa dango la ku Milan mu 313. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany na Ŵahuni ŵa ku Attila ŵakamba kugaluka. Apo msumba wa Ravenna ukathereskeka na Ŵageremani ŵa Herulian kweniso apo Odoacer wakathereska Romulus Augustus mu 476 C.E., Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukawa. Ufumu wa ku mpoto wa Ŵaroma ukakhalako vyaka vinandi m'paka apo msumba wa Constantinople ukagolera mu 1453 na Ŵaturuki ŵa Ottoman.

Chifukwa chakuti Ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa ukuru chomene kweniso ukakhala nyengo yitali, vinthu ivyo vikachitikanga mu ufumu uwu vikakhwaska chomene chiyowoyero, chisopa, luso, maofesi, mabuku, vinjeru vya ŵanthu, malango, na maboma. Chilatini icho Ŵaroma ŵakayowoyanga ndicho chikazgoka viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale na mazuŵa ghano. Ufumu wa Roma ukati wamba kugomezga Cikristu, pakaŵa cisopa cautesi. Ŵaroma na Ŵagiriki ŵakakhwaska comene luso lwa ku Italy. Maluso gha ku Roma ghakaŵa ghakovwira chomene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakazenganga nyumba za Ŵaroma, Renaissance, na Neoclassical. Ku Europe, sayansi ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma (iyo yikapangiska sayansi ya Chisilamu) yikambaso. Dango la Ŵaroma lili na ŵanthu awo ŵali kulondezga malango gha mazuŵa ghano, nga ni Dango la Napoleon ku France, apo boma la Romu lili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kulondezga malango agha.

== Cholowa ==
Vyaru vinandi vikayowoya kuti vikaŵa mu muwuso wa Ŵaroma pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Ŵaroma wa ku Western wareka kuwusa. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, uwo ukaŵa chiyezgo cha kuwuska ufumu wa Ŵaroma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ukakhazikiskika mu 800 apo Papa Leo III wakathya mphumphu Themba la Ŵafrankhi Charlemagne kuŵa themba la Ŵaroma pa Khisimasi. Ufumu uwu ukalutilira kuŵa na mazaza m'paka mu 1806, apo chigaŵa chikuru cha ufumu uwu chikazgoka Confederation of the Rhine. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni nyumba yake yikaluza zina ili pamanyuma pakuti Napoleon waleka ufumu wake.

Pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa Constantinople, Ufumu wa Russia, pakuŵa muwukirano wa Ufumu wa Byzantine, ukajiwonanga kuti ni ufumu wacitatu wa Roma. Fundo izi zikucemeka kuti translatio imperii. Pambuyo pa kuwina kwa Ufumu wa Russia, wolamulidwa ndi Nyumba ya Romanov, izi zinathera mu Russian Revolution ya 1917 pamene mabolchevik oukira anagwetsa ufumu.

Pamanyuma pa kuguliska mutu wa ufumu wa ufumu wa ufumu wa kumpoto kwa Romu, Andres Palaiologos, kwa Ferdinand II wa Aragon na Isabella I wa Castile, na mgwirizano wa ufumu wa ufumu wa Spain, ufumu uwu ukazgoka muwuso wa ufumu wa Romu.

Apo ŵa Ottoman ŵakamba kuwukira msumba wa Constantinople mu 1453, Mehmed II wakaŵika msumba wake ukuru mu msumba uwu. Wakambiska nkhondo ya Ottoman ya Otranto, iyo yikaŵa ku Southern Italy, na cilato cakuti wambeso kuwunganya ufumu, kweni nyifwa yake yikapangiska kuti nkhondo iyi yimare. Mehmed II wakacemaso ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ku msumba wake ukuru, kusazgapo Gentile Bellini.

Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., lizgu lakuti "Roma" likang'anamuranga tchalitchi na papa wa ku Roma. Zina la Chigiriki lakuti Romaioi likalutilira kulembeka mu chiyowoyero cha Chigiriki mu Ufumu wa Roma.

Chiharo cha ufumu wa Roma cha kulamulira chilumba cha Italy chikakhwaska mtundu wa Italy na kuwungana kwa Italy mu 1861. Charu cha Roma chikalutilira kuŵa na maghanoghano gha ŵasilikari, chomenechomene Ufumu wa Italy na Nazi Germany.

Mu ndyali za United States, Ŵawiskewo ŵa United States ŵakasambizgika mu mitheto ya Classical, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito viyelezgero vya Classical pa kuzenga vinthu vya ku America, kuti ŵaleke kuzunura vinthu vya ku Europe nga ni nyumba zacifumu na macalichi. Pakusambizga fundo yawo ya dango lakusazgikana, awo ŵakambiska ŵakawoneseskanga kuti demokilase ya ku Ateni na boma la Romu ni vyakuwonerapo, kweni ŵakawonanga kuti themba la Romu ni munthu wa nkhaza.






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* {{Cite book |last=Huzar |first=Eleanor Goltz |url=https://archive.org/details/markantonybiogra00huza_0 |title=Mark Antony: a Biography |date=1978 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-0863-8 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=William A. |title=Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome |last2=Parker |first2=Holt N. |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971286-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=William A. |title=Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire: A Study of Elite Communities |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972105-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |date=1960 |title=The Cloth Industry Under the Roman Empire |journal=Economic History Review |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=183–192|jstor=2591177 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Mark Wilson |title=Principles of Roman Architecture |date=2003 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10202-4 |author-link=Mark Wilson Jones |orig-date=2000}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=R. F. J. |last2=Bird |first2=D. G. |date=2012 |title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=62 |pages=59–74 |doi=10.2307/298927 |jstor=298927 |s2cid=162096359}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Christopher |title=The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280391-7 |author-link=Christopher Kelly (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kousser |first=Rachel Meredith |title=Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture: The Allure of the Classical |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87782-4 |author-link=Rachel Meredith Kousser}}
* {{Cite book |last=Laes |first=Christian |title=Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89746-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Anthony J. |date=1976 |title=Library Resources and Creative Writing at Rome |journal=Phoenix |volume=30 |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/1087296 |pages=252–264|jstor=1087296 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |date=2012 |title=Empire and City, Augustus to Julian: Obligations, Excuses and Status |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=73 |doi=10.2307/300073 |pages=76–96 |jstor=300073 |s2cid=159799017}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mommsen |first=Theodore |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genpub/abq2762.0001.001/332?p=root;size=100;view=image |title=The provinces of the Roman empire from Caesar to Diocletian |date=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Library |editor-last=Dickson |editor-first=William P. |translator-last=William P. Dickson |orig-date=1909}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Ian |title=The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium |last2=Scheidel |first2=Walter |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-970761-4 |author-link=Ian Morris (historian) |author-link2=Walter Scheidel}}
* {{Cite book |last=Naerebout |first=Frederick G. |title=Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire |date=2007 |work=Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (5–7 July 2007) |publisher=Brill |chapter=Dance in the Roman Empire and Its Discontents}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nicolet |first=Claude |url=https://archive.org/details/spacegeographypo00nico |title=Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire |date=1991 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-10096-5 |author-link=Claude Nicolet |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518800-4 |editor-last=Peachin |editor-first=Michael}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Potter |first1=David Stone |title=Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire |last2=Mattingly |first2=D. J. |date=1999 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-08568-2 |author-link=David Stone Potter |author-link2=David Mattingly (archaeologist)}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Companion to the Roman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9918-6 |editor-last=Potter |editor-first=David S. |editor-link=David Stone Potter}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/35932 |title=A Companion to the Latin Language |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-4443-4339-7 |pages=549–563 |chapter=Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire |doi=10.1002/9781444343397.ch30 |hdl=2268/35932}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rawson |first=Beryl |title=The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives |date=1987 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-9460-4 |author-link=Beryl Rawson}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rawson |first=Beryl |title=Children and Childhood in Roman Italy |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-151423-4 |author-link=Beryl Rawson}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Michael John |url=https://archive.org/details/jeweledstylepoet00robe |title=The Jeweled Style: Poetry and Poetics in Late Antiquity |date=1989 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-2265-2 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rüpke |first=Jörg |title=A Companion to Roman Religion |date=2007 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-76645-3 |author-link=Jörg Rüpke}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stambaugh |first=John E. |title=The Ancient Roman City |date=1988 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-3692-3 |author-link=John E. Stambaugh}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Richard D. |title=Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC |date=1990 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-2682-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |date=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2630-2 |author-link=Warren Treadgold}}
* {{Cite book |last=Virgil |title=[[Aeneid]] |author-link=Virgil}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Vout |first=Caroline |author-link=Caroline Vout |date=2009 |title=The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress |journal=Greece and Rome |volume=43 |issue=2 |doi=10.1093/gr/43.2.204 |pages=204–220}}
* {{Cite book |last=Winterling |first=Aloys |title=Politics and Society in Imperial Rome |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-7969-0}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=T.P. |author-link=T. P. Wiseman |date=1970 |title=The Definition of ''Eques Romanus'' |journal=Historia |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=67–83}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |title=The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-51514-3 |author-link=Gordon S. Wood}}
{{refend}}