Mbili

Nkhani iyi njakukhwaskana na the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings, see Human history. For other uses, see Mbili (disambiguation).

Ivyo Herodotus wakalemba (c. 425 B.C.E.), uyo kanandi wakuwoneka kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko" ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi

History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation')ni kusambira na kulemba vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nyengo iyo vinthu vikacitikiranga pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulemba Baibolo yikucemeka kuti nyengo ya kutayikapo. Mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka, ivyo ŵakasanga, ivyo ŵakuwunjika, ivyo ŵakuchita, na umo ŵakuviyowoyera. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakukhumba kumanya ivyo vikachitika kumasinda, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mabuku, mabuku, vinthu vyakuzengeka, na vinthu vinyake. Mbiri njambura kukwana ndipo yichali na vyakusisi.

Mbiri ni sayansi iyo yikugwiliskira nchito nkhani kuti yilongosore, kusanda, kufumba, na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kweniso kuti yamanye umo vikacitikira. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakudumbiskana nkhani iyo yikulongosora makora ivyo vikachitika kweniso chifukwa icho vikachitikira. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakususkana na umo mdauko uliri, kweniso kuti ngwakuzirwa pa nkhani ya masuzgo gha mazuŵa ghano.

Nkhani izo zikukolerana na mitheto yinyake, kweni zikukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya (nga ni nkhani izo zikuyowoya vya Themba Arthur), kanandi zikulongosoreka kuti ni nthano. Mbiri yikupambana na vidokoni pakuti yikukhozgeka na ukaboni. Ndipouli, mitheto yakale yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵapulikiskenge makora nkhani za mu Baibolo izo zasintha mu vyaka vinandi ndipo zikulutilira kusintha mazuŵa ghano. Kafukufuku wamakono wa mbiriyakale ndiwakutali, ndipo amaphatikizapo kuphunzira madera enaake ndi kuphunzira zinthu zina zapadera kapena zowunikira za kafukufuku wakale. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko mu masukulu gha pulayimale na sekondare.

Herodotus, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., wakuchemeka "wiske wa mdauko" (pakuti ndiyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kumanya mdauko) nangauli ŵanthu ŵakumususka kuti ni "wiske wa utesi". Iyo pamoza na Thucydides, uyo wakaŵako mu nyengo yake, ndiwo ŵakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale. Ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuŵazga mabuku ghawo m'paka sono, ndipo mphambano pakati pa Herodotus na Thucydides, awo ŵakalembanga vya mitheto. Ku East Asia, mabuku gha boma ghakuchemeka Spring and Autumn Annals, ghakalembeka mu 722 B.C.E., nangauli ni mabuku gha mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. pera agho ghachalipo.

Viyowoyero

Mbiri ya Frederick Dielman (1896)

TLizgu lakuti mdauko likufuma ku historía (Ancient Greek: ἱστορία, romanized: historíā, lit. 'inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge'). Ndico cifukwa cake Aristotle wakalemba mazgu agha mu buku lake lakuti History of Animals. Lizgu lakwamba lakuti, ?? στωρ likusangika kale mu sumu za Homer, Heraclitus, chilapo cha Ŵaateni, na mu malemba gha Boeotic (mu dango, "mweruzgi" panji "kaboni", panji ghanyake ghakuyana waka). Lizgu Lachigiriki ili likang'anamulika kufuma ku Chilatini kuti historia, kung'anamura "kupenjerezga, kupenjerezga, kupenda, kulongosora, kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kulemba mbiri, kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale". Mbiri inachokera ku Chilatini (mwina kudzera ku Old Irish kapena Old Welsh) kupita ku Old English monga stær ("mbiri, nkhani, nkhani"), koma liwu ili silinagwiritsidwe ntchito kumapeto kwa nyengo ya Old English. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, apo Chilatini chikazgokanga Chifurenchi chakale (na Anglo-Norman), historia yikamba kuwoneka nga ni istorie, estoire, na historie, ndipo yikamba kumanyikwa kuti: "mbiri ya vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu umoyo wa munthu (kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200), chikhwangwani, nkhani ya vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu gulu la ŵanthu panji ŵanthu wose (1155), vyakuchitika vya mdauko (c. 1240), umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira, sayansi (c. 1265), nkhani ya vinthu vyaunenesko panji vyakubisika, nkhani (c. 1462)".

Mbiri ya ŵanthu yikafuma mu chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman ndipo yikaŵa mu Chingelezi chapakati. Lizgu ili likusangika mu buku la Ancrene Wisse ilo likalembeka mu 1300, kweni likuwoneka kuti likaŵa lizgu lakupharazgika comene m'ma 1400. Mu Chingelezi chapakati, ng'anamuro la mbiri ni "mbiri". Mazgu agha ghakung'anamura kuti "mulimo wa kumanya vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale; kulemba panji kusambira vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, chomenechomene nkhani za ŵanthu". Mu nyengo ya Renaissance, mazgu agha ghakaŵaso na ng'anamuro linyake, ndipo Francis Bacon wakagwiliskira ntchito lizgu ili mu Chigiriki m'ma 1500 apo wakalembanga vya mdauko. Kwa iyo, historia yikaŵa "kumanya vinthu ivyo vikulongosoreka na malo na nyengo", ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga vinthu ivi chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakakumbukanga (apo sayansi yikaŵa na vinjeru, ndipo sumu zikaŵanga na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana).

Mu chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi, chiyowoyero cha ku China (史 vs. (Tumbuka) sono ni mazgu ghapadera agho ghakung'anamura mbiri ya ŵanthu kweniso nkhani izo zikuyowoyeka. Mu viyowoyero vya mazuŵa ghano nga ni Chijeremani, Chifurenchi, kweniso viyowoyero vinandi vya Chijeremani na Chigiriki, mazgu agha ghakung'anamulika kuti "mbiri". Munthu wakumanya mdauko wakuzunulika kuti "wakusanda mdauko" mu 1531. Mu viyowoyero vyose vya ku Europe, mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura "ivyo vikachitikira ŵanthu" kweniso "kusanda ivyo vikachitika". Lizgu lakuti historical likusangika mu Baibolo kufuma mu 1661, ndipo historic likusangika mu Baibolo kufuma mu 1669.

Kuyowoya

The title page to The Historians' History of the World

Ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakulemba mu nyengo yawo, ndipo ŵakughanaghanira chomene maghanoghano agho ŵanthu ŵali nagho pa nkhani ya umo ŵangalongosolera ivyo vikachitika kale. Mu mazgu gha Benedetto Croce, "mbiri yose nja sono". Mbiri yikuŵa yipusu cifukwa ca kupanga "mazgu ghaunenesko gha ivyo vikacitika kale" kwizira mu nkhani na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu. Sayansi yasono ya mdauko yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora nkhani iyi.

Vyose ivyo vikucitika ivyo vikukumbukika na kusungika mu nthowa yinyake, ni mbiri. Ntchito ya nkhani za m'mbiri njakuti tisange ivyo vingatovwira kuti tisange nkhani zaunenesko. Chifukwa chake, malamulo a mbiriyakale ya wolemba mbiri ndi chifukwa chozungulira mbiriyakale wamba poletsa kugwiritsa ntchito malemba ena ndi zikalata (mwa kunyenga zonena zawo kuti zikuyimira "zakale zenizeni"). Ntchito yinyake ya munthu wakusanda mdauko ni kugwiliskira ntchito makora na mwamahara vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka kale. Para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakukumbuka panji kulongosora vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika kale, ŵakuŵa chete.

Kaŵirikaŵiri maphunziro a mbiriyakale amagawidwa monga gawo la maphunziro a zaumunthu ndipo nthawi zina monga gawo la sayansi ya chikhalidwe. Kweniso tingawona kuti ni nthowa yakukumanira pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri ivi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakukolerana na fundo iyi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, sukulu ya Annales yikasintha chomene umo ŵanthu ŵakusambilira mdauko wa charu chapasi.

Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakulemba vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kwali ŵakulemba panji kuphalirako ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakuyezga kusanga mazgoro gha mafumbo agha. Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni vikhwangwani, malemba, na vithuzithuzi. Kanandi, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakumanya vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ivyo vili kulembeka, ivyo vikuyowoyeka, na ivyo vili kusungika. Kweni kulemba ndiko kukupatura mdauko ku ivyo vikaŵako pambere ivi vindacitike.

Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakovwira chomene pa kusanda malo na vinthu ivyo vili kusungika. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakusanga vikusangika bweka yayi, ndipo nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba zikovwira chomene pa ivyo ŵasanga. Nthowa izo ŵasayansi ŵakusangira vinthu vyakale ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zikuyana yayi na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu vyakale. "Vinthu vyakale vyakumasinda" ni munthavi unyake wa vinthu vyakale uwo kanandi ukususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mazuŵa ghano. Mwachiyelezgero, Mark Leone, uyo wakafukura na kung'anamulira vinthu mu msumba wa Annapolis, ku Maryland, U.S.A., wakayezga kupulikiska mphindano iyo yilipo pakati pa malemba agho ghakuyowoya vya "ufulu" na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵazga kweniso kuti vinthu vikaŵa vyambura kuyana.

Pali nthowa zakupambanapambana izo tingalongosolera mdauko, kusazgapo nyengo, mitheto, vigaŵa, na nkhani. Vinthu ivi vikupambana yayi, ndipo kanandi vikupambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵangasanda nkhani zakupambanapambana, nangauli mazuŵa ghano ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene nkhani zakupambanapambana. Malo agho ghakuchemeka Big History ghakususkana na fundo iyi, ndipo ghakukhumba kuti vinthu vichitikenge mu charu chose. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko na chilato chakuti ŵamanye vinandi, kweni nyengo zinyake ŵakusambiraso chifukwa cha kukhumba kumanya waka.

Mbili yapakwambilila

Wonani vinandi: Protohistory

Mdauko wa ŵanthu ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakacita kumasinda pa caru cose capasi, ndipo vyose ivi vili kusungika mu mabuku. Pakuyowoya za "mbiri yakale", awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakung'anamura kumanya vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale chomene mu malo agho mulije maukaboni panji umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikiskira yayi umo vinthu vikalembekera. Para munthu wakusanda vithuzithuzi, vyakujambura, na vinthu vinyake, wangasanga fundo zinyake nangauli palije ivyo vili kulembeka. Kwambira mu ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti para munthu wakusambira vya mdauko wakwamba wakwenera yayi kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵalutilire kukhala mu vyaru vinyake, nga ni vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na America. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ndiwo ŵakulemba chomene mdauko. Mu 1961, E. H. Carr wakalemba kuti:

Para ŵanthu ŵaleka kughanaghanira waka vya mazuŵa ghano, ŵakwamba kughanaghana vya ivyo vikaŵachitikira kumasinda ndiposo ivyo viŵachitikirenge munthazi. Mbiri yikwamba na kuphalirana mitheto; ndipo mitheto yikung'anamura kuphalirana mitheto na masambiro gha ivyo vikacitika kale. Mabuku agho ghakalembeka kumasinda ghakwamba kusungika kuti ghazakovwire miwiro yakunthazi.

Fundo iyi yikusazgapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Australia na New Zealand Māori, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalemba pambere ŵandafike ku Europe.

Kulemba mbiri

Nkhani ikulu: Historiography

Pa peji lakwamba la La Historia d'Italia

Mu Baibolo ili, mazgu agha ghakung'anamura vinandi. Chakwamba, likung'anamura umo mbiri yikapangikira: umo nthowa na vyakuchita vikasinthira (kufuma pa nkhani zakudumura za umoyo wa munthu kuya pa nkhani zakudumura). Chachiŵiri, lingang'anamura ivyo vyalembeka: mabuku ghakulongosora mdauko (kuyelezgera kuti, "mdauko wa m'ma 1960" kung'anamura "Mdauko wa m'ma 1960"). Chachitatu, lingang'anamura chifukwa icho ŵanthu ŵakupangira mdauko. Pakuwona umo vinthu vikaŵira kumanyuma, fundo yachitatu iyi yikukolerana na fundo ziŵiri zakwambilira, chifukwa kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chomene vya nkhani, umo ŵanthu ŵakulongosolera vinthu, umo charu chikuwonekera, umo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni, panji umo ŵakulongosolera vinthu. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakufumbaso usange tingasambizga mdauko nga ni nkhani yimoza yakukolerana panji nkhani zinandi zakupambanapambana.

Methods

Wonani vinandi: Historical method

A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria Historical method basics The following questions are used by historians in modern work. When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)? Where was it produced (localization)? By whom was it produced (authorship)? From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)? In what original form was it produced (integrity)? What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)? The first four are known as historical criticism; the fifth, textual criticism; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism.

Nthowa ya mdauko yikusazgapo nthowa na fundo izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusanda nkhani na vinthu vinyake.

Herodotus wa ku Halicarnassus (484 B.C.E. 425 B.C.E.) wakumanyikwa kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko". Ndipouli, Thucydides (c. 460 B.C.E. 400 B.C.E.) ndiyo wakambiska nkhani za mdauko mu buku lake la History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides wakawonanga kuti mdauko ukufuma ku ivyo ŵanthu ŵasankha na kuchita, ndipo wakawonanga kuti pali chifukwa na umaliro wake m'malo mwa Chiuta (nangauli Herodotus nayo wakagomezganga fundo iyi yayi). Thucydides wakalongosora umo vinthu vikachitikiranga mu nyengo iyo vikachitikiranga. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵa ku Greece nawo ŵakawonanga kuti mdauko ukucitika nyengo zose.

Ku China kukaŵa mitheto ya mdauko kweniso nthowa zakugwiliskira ntchito mdauko. Mulimo wa kulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ku East Asia ukambika na Sima Qian (145-90 B.C.E.), uyo wakalemba buku lakuti Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). Chifukwa cha ivyo wakalemba, Sima Qian wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Dada wa mbiri ya ku China. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku China awo ŵakalembako mbiri ya mafumu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito buku lake la Shiji pakulemba mabuku gha mdauko.

Augustine wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira. Mu nyengo za ku Middle Ages na Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakasambiranga vya mdauko kufuma ku vinthu vyakupatulika. Cha m'ma 1800, nkhwantha ya vya mdauko ya ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, yikiza na vinjeru vya ŵanthu mu nkhani ya mdauko.

Mu mazgu ghakwambilira gha mu buku lake la Muqaddimah (1377), Ibn Khaldun, uyo wakaŵa Muarabu, wakachenjezga za maubudi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakacitanga. Mu nkhani iyi, wakawonanga vinthu vyamunthazi nga ni vyakuzizika ndipo vikukhumbikwira kung'anamulika. Ivyo Ibn Khaldun wakalemba vikulongora kuti mphambano ya mitheto ya mu nyengo yinyake yikwenera kulongozga umo vinthu vya mdauko vikweruzgikira, kuti munthu wapambaniskenge fundo izo wangayezgera kughanaghanirapo, kweniso kuti wamanye kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kuŵa na vinjeru. Kanandi Ibn Khaldun wakasuskanga "maluso ghambura ntchito na kuzomera waka vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale". Lekani wakambiska masambiro ghakukhwaskana na mdauko, ndipo kanandi wakaghacemanga kuti "sayansi yiphya". Nthowa yake ya kusanda mdauko yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye udindo wa boma, umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyeskana, umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera, kweniso umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira pa nkhani za mdauko. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵakumuwona kuti ni "wiske wa mbiri" panji "wiske wa vinjeru vya mdauko".

Ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakamba kulemba mdauko mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, chomenechomene ku France na Germany. Mu 1851, Herbert Spencer wakalongosora nthowa izi:

From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians] diligently gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought

By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, Henry Thomas Buckle expressed a dream of history becoming one day science:

In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and universal laws. This have been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient, untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar results

Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods became Leopold von Ranke in Germany. He limited history to "what really happened" and by this directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures "are merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws about them."

As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, no, history is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is not a science.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko ŵakaŵikanga chomene mahara yayi pa nkhani za kutemwera charu, izo kanandi zikalumbanga mtundu panji ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona kuti mdauko ni sayansi yayi, kweni ni luso. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasambizganga chomene vya mdauko wa ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi ŵanandi, kusazgapo Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre, na Lawrence Stone. Ŵanandi awo ŵakasambizganga vya mdauko wa ŵanthu ŵakamanyikwanga chomene chifukwa cha umo ŵakenderanga. Braudel wakasazga mdauko na geography, mdauko wa Bracher na political science, mdauko wa Fogel na economics, mdauko wa Gay na psychology, mdauko wa Trigger na archeology, uku Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre, na Le Roy Ladurie ŵakasazga mdauko na sociology, geography, anthropology, na economics. Ndipouli, nthowa izi zikatondeka kupanga fundo ya mdauko. Mpaka sono pali fundo yimoza pera ya mdauko iyo yikayowoyeka na munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko. Ivyo tikugomezga pa nkhani ya mdauko vikalembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vinandi pa nkhani iyi. Sonosono apa, sayansi ya nkhani za mu digito yamba kuwona umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito kompyuta kuti ŵafumbisiske mafumbo ghakukhwaskana na mdauko kweniso umo ŵangasambilira vya mu digito.

Pakususkana na fundo yakuti mdauko ni sayansi, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya mdauko nga ni Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb, na Gerhard Ritter ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakughanaghana kuti mdauko ni luso. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku France awo ŵakasambizganga vya mdauko ŵakamba kulemba vya mdauko wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya mdauko nga ni Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte na George Mosse ŵakayowoyapo kuti fundo za mu mdauko ni zakuzirwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakasanda mdauko ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, mitundu yinyake, na ŵanthu ŵamitundu yinyake ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzirwa. Nkhani yinyake iyo yikayowoyeka pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikaŵa yakuti Alltagsgeschichte. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw, na Detlev Peukert, ŵakayezga kuwona umo umoyo ukaŵira mu nyengo ya Nazi.

Ŵakumanya mdauko ŵa Marx, nga ni Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. Wakayama R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer, na Christopher Hill ŵayezga kuti ŵasimikizge fundo za Karl Marx mwa kusanda mbiri kufuma ku fundo za Marx. Pakuzgora ng'anamuro la Marxist la mdauko, ŵa mbiri nga ni François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. Kuŵa wakukondwa. D. Kuŵa wakukondwa. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner, na Robert Conquest ŵakulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera mdauko. Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ya ŵanakazi nga ni Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, na Lynn Hunt, ŵayowoyapo kuti nchakuzirwa kusambira ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakakumana navyo kumanyuma. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti vinthu vyasintha kufuma ku vinyake ŵakukayikira usange ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu mbiri yakale ni vyaunenesko. Mu buku lake la mu 1997, Richard J. Evans wakavikilira mbiri. Buku linyake ilo wakalemba mu 1994 (The Killing of History) likayowoyaso umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikira pa nkhani ya mdauko.

Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakwamba kupenjerezga nkhani mu mabuku gha mdauko. Kanandi ŵakughanaghana fundo yinyake ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ivyo ŵasanga. John H. Arnold wakayowoya kuti mdauko ni fundo iyo yikovwira kuti vinthu visinthe. Makampani gha vinthu vya digito, nga ni Google, ghapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pa nkhani ya umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera Intaneti.

Marxian theory

Nkhani ikulu: Marx's theory of history

Fundo ya Marx yakuti vinthu vyakuthupi ni vyakuzirwa yikulongora kuti vinthu vikwenda makora pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Pa vyose, Marx na Engels ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakamanya vigaŵa vinkhondi ivyo vinthu vikaŵa makora mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga chomene nkhani za Marx, kweni kufuma waka apo boma la Communist likamalira mu 1991, Mikhail Krom wakati nkhani izi zili kuchepa chomene..

Potential shortcomings in the production of history

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakupambanako chifukwa vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu mdauko vikung'anamulika munthowa zakupambanapambana. Constantin Fasolt wakati mdauko ukuyana waka na ndyali chifukwa cha kukhala chete. Wakayowoyaso kuti: "Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani ya umo mbiri na ndyali vikukolerana vikuthemba pa fundo yakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakukhwaskika na ndyali". Kuyana na Michel-Rolph Trouillot, ndondomeko ya mdauko yili kufuma mu mabuku gha mdauko, ntheura para ŵanthu ŵakhala chete panji ŵakuluwa vinthu vinyake vya mdauko, ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakumanya makora umo ŵanthu ŵakukumbukirana. Vinthu ivyo vikaleka kulembeka mu Baibolo vingachitika munthowa zinandi ndipo vingatimbanizga chomene mbiri. Kweniso munthu wangataya mwadala panji mwangozi. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵali kulemba mazgu ghanandi agho ghakulongosora umo munthu wakuchitira para waleka kupulika nkhani za mu Baibolo. Mulembi wa mdauko wa m'ma 1900, zina lake Gerda Lerner, wakalongosora umo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵakakhwaskikira na ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakachita.

Munthu munyake wakumanya mdauko wakwendakwenda, William Cronon, wakayowoya nthowa zitatu zakumazgira kusankhana maghanoghano na kuvikilira nkhani zaunenesko na zakugomezgeka..

Vigaŵa vya masambiro

Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as history of science, history of mathematics and history of philosophy. Ancient history: the study of history from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages. Atlantic history: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean. Art history: the study of changes in and the social context of art. Comparative history: the historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries. Contemporary history: the study of recent historical events. Counterfactual history: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal circumstances. Cultural history: the study of culture in the past. Digital history: the use of computing technologies to do massive searches in published sources. Economic history: the use of economic models fitted to the past. Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time. Maritime history: the study of maritime transport and all connected subjects. Material history: the study of objects and the stories they can tell. Modern history: the study of Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages. Military history: the study of warfare, historical wars, and Naval history, which is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history. Oral history: the collection and study of historical information by utilizing spoken interviews with people who have lived past events. Palaeography: the study of ancient texts. People's history: historical work from the perspective of common people. Political history: the study of politics in the past. Psychohistory: the study of the psychological motivations for historical events. Pseudohistory: studies about the past that fall outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes equivalent to pseudoscience). Social history: the study of the process of social change throughout history. Women's history: the history of female human beings. Gender history is related and covers the perspective of gender. World history: the study of history from a global perspective, with special attention to non-Western societies.

Periods

Nkhani ikulu: Periodization

Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians. The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.

Prehistoric periodization

The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of tools and theories. In archeology, the usual method for periodization of the distant prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with subdivisions that are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology. This narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning.

Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.

Geographical locations

Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. According to Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de France (1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air". Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth Huntington and Ellen Churchill Semple cited as a crucial influence on the course of history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial temperament.

Regions

• History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.
• History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.
  • History of North America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's northern and western hemisphere.
  • History of Central America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's western hemisphere.
  • History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.
  • History of South America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's southern and western hemisphere.

Allegory of the recognition of the Empire of Brazil and its independence. The painting depicts British diplomat Sir Charles Stuart presenting his letter of credence to Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, who is flanked by his wife Maria Leopoldina, their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen Maria II of Portugal), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History, carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.

• History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.
• History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
  • History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day.
  • History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.
    • History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.
    • History of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
    • History of India is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan region.
    • History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.
• History of Oceania is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands.
  • History of Australia starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast.
  • History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land.
  • History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Political

Nkhani ikulu: Political history and Political history in the United States

Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting.

Military

Nkhani ikulu: Military history

Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat. The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.

Religious

Nkhani ikulu: History of religion

The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy. This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.

Social

Nkhani ikulu: Social history

Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life. In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%. In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%). The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible." While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in".

Subfields

The chief subfields of social history include:

• Black history
• Demographic history
• Ethnic history
• Gender history
• History of childhood
• History of education
• History of the family
• Labor history
• LGBT history
• Rural history
• Urban history
  • American urban history
• Women's history

Cultural

Nkhani ikulu: Cultural history

Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images and human visual production (iconography).

Diplomatic

Nkhani ikulu: Diplomatic history

Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars. More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies". She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it.

Economic

Nkhani ikulu: Economic history and Business history

Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments. Business history deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.

Environmental

Nkhani ikulu: Environmental history

Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it. It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s.

World

Nkhani ikulu: World history (field)

Wonaniso: Human history and Universal history

World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.

It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others.

The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.

People's

Nkhani ikulu: People's history

A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.

Intellectual

Nkhani ikulu: Intellectual history

Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.

Gender

Nkhani ikulu: Gender history and LGBT history

Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's history stemmed from many non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power", meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people who identify outside of that binary. LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations, and involves the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples and cultures around the world.

Public

Nkhani ikulu: Public history

Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.

Historians

For a more comprehensive list, see List of historians.

Benedetto Croce

Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. They discover this information through archeological evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

Judgement

Wonaniso: Ash heap of history

Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the "judgement of history". The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of legal judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final. A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of collective memory.

Pseudohistory

Nkhani ikulu: Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching

Scholarship vs teaching

A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where Thomas Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.

Nationalism

From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.

At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity.

Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official narrative about national enemies.

In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of the Armenian Genocide in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.

It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.

In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state. An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the country is the history of the Southern states, where slavery and the American Civil War are treated as controversial topics. McGraw-Hill Education for example, was criticized for describing Africans brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.

Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.

In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."

See also

• Outline of history
• Glossary of history

Vinandi

• Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics.
• Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.
• Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0333977017.
• Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling". American Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1. Archived from the original on 23 Julayi 2016. Retrieved 24 Julayi 2016; Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.
• Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393319598.
• Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide.
• Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text search.
• Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the United States". The Oxford History of Historical Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0199533091. Archived from the original on 15 Sekutembala 2015. Retrieved 2 Julayi 2015.
• Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students; excerpt and text search.
• Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. ISBN 1405823518.
• Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities; excerpt and text search.
• Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World. Vol. Book 1. Archived from the original on 15 Sekutembala 2015. Retrieved 2 Julayi 2015; This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.
• Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 85-7164-837-9.

External links

• Official website of BestHistorySites
• Official website of BBC History
• Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also Internet History Sourcebooks Project (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use)