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Usanisinuru (ndiyo fotosinfesisi)

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Chithunzithunzi cha Usanisinuru mu vyakumera. carbohydrates iyo yikupangika yikusungika panji kugwiliskirika nchito na chakumera.
Chithunzithunzi chomwe chikulongora umo vyakumera vikugaŵikira pa charu chose, kusazgapo vya mu nyanja phytoplankton na vya pa charu chapasi vyakumera. Mufipa wakufipirwa na wa buluu-wakubiriŵira vikulongora malo agho ghakupanga vinthu vinandi vyakupangika na ungweru mu nyanja na pa charu chapasi.

Usanisinuru[1] (photosynthesis), ni nthowa iyo vyakumera vyakubiriŵira na vyamoyo vinyake vikusinthira nkhongono ya ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko. Pa nyengo ya photosynthesis mu vyakumera vyakubiriŵira, nkhongono ya ungweru yikukoleka na kugwiliskirika nchito kusintha maji, carbon dioxide, na minerals kuŵa mphepo ya oxygen na vyamoyo ivyo vikupereka nkhongono zinandi.[2]

Mabakiteriya ghanyake ghakuchitaso mabakiteriya, agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito bacteriochlorophyll kuti ghagaŵire hydrogen sulfide nga ni vyakuchepeskako m’malo mwa maji, ndipo ghakupanga sulfure m’malo mwa mphepo . . Archaea nga ni Halobacterium nawo ŵakuchita mtundu wa kukhozga carbon kwambura mphepo, apo kukhozga retinal na . rhodopsin wa tizirombo vyakufumapo vyake vikugwiriskirika nchito kuti vikole . ungweru wakubiriŵira na nkhongono pampu ya protonis kuti ŵapange mwaluŵiro adenosine triphosphate (ATP), "ndalama ya nkhongono" ya maselo. Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru kwanthena uku kungaŵa kuti ndiko kukaŵa kwakwamba comene pa caru capasi, kufuma mu nyengo ya Paleoarchean, pambere cyanobacteria yindaŵeko (wonani Purple Earth hypothesis).

Nangauli vinthu ivyo vikuyowoyeka vingaŵa vyakupambana pakati pa mitundu, kweni nyengo zose ndondomeko iyi yikwamba para nkhongono ya ungweru yikukoleka na reaction centers, mapulotini agho ghali na pigment ya photosynthetics panji chromophores. Mu vyakumera, mitundu iyi ni chlorophylls (chinthu icho chikufuma mu porphyrin icho chikutora ungweru wakufipirwa na wa buluu, ntheura chikuwoneska ungweru wakubiriŵira) uwo ukusungika mukati mwa chloroplasts . , zinandi mu maselo gha mahamba. Mu mabakiteriya, ghakuŵikika mu chiŵaro cha plasma. Mu vinthu ivi ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, nkhongono zinyake zikugwiriskirika ncito kuti ziwuskemo ma electrons kufuma ku vinthu vyakwenelera, nga ni maji, ndipo vikupanga mphepo ya oxygen. Haidrojeni uyo wakufwatulika na kugaŵikana kwa maji wakugwiliskirika nchito pakupanga mamolekyu ghaŵiri ghakuzirwa agho ghakucitako nkhongono: kucepeskako nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) na ATP.

Mu vyakumera, ndere, na cyanobacteria, shuga wakupangika na ndondomeko yakulondezgapo ya kujiyimira paŵekha vyakuchitika ivyo vikuchemeka Calvin cycle. Mu nthowa iyi, mphepo ya carbon dioxide iyo yili mu mlengalenga yikusazgako vinthu ivyo vikupangika kale, nga ni ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).[3] Kugwiriskira ncito ATP na NADPH ivyo vikupangika na vyakucitika ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, vyakupangika ivyo vikufumamo vikuŵa vikucepeskeka na kufumiskikapo kuti vipangiske vyakurya vinyake vyakupangika na thupi, nga ni glucose. Mu mabakiteriya ghanyake, nthowa zakupambanapambana nga ni reverse Krebs cycle zikugwiriskirika ncito kuti zifiske umaliro umoza.

Vinyama vyakwamba ivyo vikapanga vyakurya vikwenera kuti vikasintha kumayambiro kwa mbiri ya kusintha kwa umoyo mwakugwiliskira nchito vyakuchepeska nga ni haidrojeni panji haidrojeni sulfide, m’malo mwa maji, nga ni magwero gha ma electron.[4] Pamanyuma pake, ma Cyanobacteria ghakawoneka; oxygen yakujumphizga iyo ŵakapanga yikawovwira chomene kuti oxygen pa charu chapasi.,[5] ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu vyamoyo vyakusuzga viŵeko. Pafupifupi nkhongono izo zikukoleka na vyakupangapanga vya pa caru cose zikuŵa pafupifupi 130 terawatts,[6][7][8] which is about eight times the total power consumption of human civilization.[9] Vyamoyo ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikusinthaso pafupifupi 100–115 biliyoni tanis (91–104 Pg petagrams, panji mabiliyoni gha matani gha metric), gha carbon kuŵa vyamoyo pa chaka.[10][11] Photosynthesis was discovered in 1779 by Jan Ingenhousz who showed that plants need light, not just soil and water.

Kuwoneseska mwakudumura

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: Kukhazikika kwa carbon
Usanisinuru ichi chikusintha ungweru wa dazi kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko, kugaŵa maji kuti ghafumiske O2, na kukhozga CO2 kuŵa shuga.

Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikupanga vyakurya na ungweru ni photoautotrophs, ico cikung’anamura kuti vikukwaniska kupanga vyakurya mwaluŵiro kufuma ku carbon dioxide na maji mwakugwiliskira nchito nkhongono kufuma ku ungweru. Ndipouli, ni vyamoyo vyose yayi ivyo vikugwiliskira nchito carbon dioxide nga ni mtundu wa atomu za carbon kuti vipangiske vyakurya vyakupangika na ungweru; photoheterotroph ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu vyakupangika na vyamoyo, m’malo mwa mphepo ya carbon dioxide, nga ni nthowa yakupangira carbon dioxide.[2]

Mu vyakumeras, nyere, na cyanobacteria, mphepo iyo yikupangika na ungweru yikufumiska mphepo. Usanisinuru wa oksijeni iyi ndiyo mtundu wakumanyikwa chomene wa photosynthesis uwo ukugwiriskirika nchito na vyamoyo. Vyakumera vinyake ivyo vikutemwa mthunzi (sciophytes) vikupanga mphepo yichoko chomene pa nyengo ya photosynthesis mwakuti vikugwiliskira ntchito vyose pavekha m’malo mwa kuvifumiska kuti viŵe mu mlengalenga.[12]

Nangauli pali mphambano zinyake pakati pa mphepo iyo yikupangika mu vyakumera, mu nyanja, na mu cyanobacteria, kweni ndondomeko yose yikuyana waka mu vyamoyo ivi. Paliso mitundu yinandi ya anoxygenic photosynthesis, iyo yikugwiriskirika ntchito chomene na mabakiteriya, agho ghakurya carbon dioxide kweni ghakufumiska yayi mphepo.[13][14]

Carbon dioxide wakusinthika kuŵa shuga mu nthowa iyo yikuchemeka kuŵika carbon; nkhongono zakupangika na ungweru wa dazi zikutora nkhongono kufuma ku ungweru wa dazi kuti zisinthe carbon dioxide kuŵa carbohydrates. Kukhazikika kwa carbon ni kutentha redox vyakuchitika. Mu ndondomeko yikuru, kupanga vyakurya vyakupangika na ungweru nkhwakupambana na kupuma kwa maselo: nangauli kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru ni nthowa yakuchepeskeramo carbon dioxide kuŵa vyakurya vyakupangika na thupi, kupuma kwa maselo ni nthowa yakupangira vyakurya vyakupangika na thupi panji vyakurya vinyake kuŵa carbon dioxide. Vyakurya ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito pa kupuma kwa maselo ni vyakurya vyakupangika na thupi, amino acid na mafuta. Vinthu ivi vikupangika na oxidation kuti vipangiske carbon dioxide na maji, ndiposo kuti vifumiske nkhongono za kemiko kuti vilongozge metabolism ya vyamoyo.

Photosynthesis na kupuma kwa maselo ni ndondomeko zakupambanapambana, chifukwa vikuchitika kwizira mu ndondomeko zakupambanapambana za vyakuchitika vya kemiko ndiposo mu chipinda cha maselos ghakupambanapambana (kupuma kwa maselo mu mitochondria).[15][16]

Chigaŵa chose equation ya vyakupangapanga nga umo vikayowoyekera pakwamba na Cornelis van Niel ni:[17]

CO2carbon
dioxide + 2H2Aelectron donor + photonslight energy → [CH2O]carbohydrate + 2Aoxidized
electron
donor + H2Owater

Pakuti maji ghakugwiriskirika ncito nga ni uyo wakupeleka ma electron mu kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na mphepo, equation ya ndondomeko iyi njakuti .:

CO2carbon
dioxide + 2H2Owater + photonslight energy → [CH2O]carbohydrate + O2oxygen + H2Owater

Equation iyi yikukhozgera kuti maji ghose ghakuchitapo kanthu mu vinthu ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru ndiposo ni chinthu icho chikufuma mu vinthu ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, kweni vikuwuskapo n Mamolekyu gha maji kufuma ku chigaŵa chilichose ghakupereka equation ya net:

CO2carbon
dioxide + H2O water + photonslight energy → [CH2O]carbohydrate + O2 oxygen

Nthowa zinyake zikunjilirapo pa vinthu vinyake (nga ni arsenite) kuti viŵe maji mu mulimo wa kupeleka magesi; mwachiyelezgero, tumatumbo tunyake tukugwiriskira nchito ungweru wa dazi kuti tupangiske arsenite kuŵa arsenate:[18] Equation ya vyakuchitika ivi ni:

CO2carbon
dioxide + (AsO3−
3)
arsenite + photonslight energy → (AsO3−
4)
arsenate + COcarbon
monoxide(likugwiriskirika nchito kupanga vinthu vinyake mu vyakuchitika vyakulondezgapo)[19]

Photosynthesis yikuchitika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Mu chigaŵa chakwamba, vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru panji vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru vikutora nkhongono ya ungweru na kuvigwiliskira ntchito kuti vipangire chinthu icho chikunyamura haidrojeni NADPH na molekyulu yakusungirako nkhongono ATP ]. . Pa nyengo yachiŵiri, vyakuchitika vyakujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru vikugwiriskira ntchito vinthu ivi kuti vikole na kuchepeska carbon dioxide.

Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito mphepo ya oxygen vikugwiriskira ncito ungweru wakuwoneka pa vyakucitika ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, nangauli pafupifupi vitatu vikugwiriskira ncito ungweru wa shortwave infrared panji, mwakudunjika, ungweru wakufipirwa comene.[20]

Vyamoyo vinyake vikugwiliskira nchito mitundu yakupambanapambana ya photosynthesis. Ŵanyake archaea ŵakugwiliskira nchito nthowa yipusu iyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito mtundu wakuyana waka na uwo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa vinyama kuti ŵawone. bacteriorhodopsin wakusintha umo wakupangikira para wakuwona ungweru wa dazi, ndipo wakugwira ntchito nga ni pampu ya protoni. Ici cikupangiska kuti paŵe proton gradient mwaluŵiro comene, ndipo pamanyuma pake yikusinthika kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko. Nthowa iyi yikukhwaskana na kukhazikika kwa carbon dioxide yayi ndipo yikufumiska yayi mphepo ya oksijeni, ndipo yikuwoneka kuti yikasintha padera na mitundu yakumanyikwa comene ya photosynthesis.[21]

Viŵaro vyakupangika na ungweru na viŵaro vinyake

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: Chloroplast and Thylakoid
Chloroplast :
  1. outer membrane
  2. intermembrane space
  3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope)
  4. stroma (aqueous fluid)
  5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid)
  6. thylakoid membrane
  7. granum (stack of thylakoids)
  8. thylakoid (lamella)
  9. starch
  10. ribosome
  11. plastidial DNA
  12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids)

Mu mabakiteriya agho ghakupanga vyakurya, mapulotini agho ghakuwunganya ungweru kuti ghapangire vyakurya ghakuŵikika mu cell membranes. Mu kawonekero kake kapusu comene, ici cikukhwaskana na membrane iyo yikuzingilizga selo ilo.[22] However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids,[23] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes.[24] Vinthu ivi vingazura mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mukati mwa selo, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti membrane yiŵe na malo ghakuru chomene ndipo ntheura yikupangiska kuti mabakiteriya ghatore ungweru unandi.[23]

Mu vyakumera na mu nyanja, vyakupangika na ungweru vikuchitika mu viŵaro ivyo vikuchemeka chloroplast. Selo la chakumera lakumanyikwa likuŵa na ma chloroplast pafupifupi 10 panji 100. Chloroplast yikujalirika na chingwe. Nthimbo iyi yili na nkhombo ya mkati ya phospholipid, nkhombo ya kuwaro ya phospholipid, na malo gha pakati pa nkhombo. Pafupi na membrane iyi pali maji gha maji agho ghakuchemeka stroma. Mukati mwa stroma muli milu ya thylakoids (grana), iyo ni malo ghakupangira vyakurya. Ma thylakoid ghakuwoneka nga ni madisiki ghakuphapha. Thylakoid iyo yikujalirika na membrane ya thylakoid, ndipo mukati mwa buku ilo likujalirika muli lumen panji malo gha thylakoid. Mu membrane ya thylakoid muli vigaŵa vyakuzirwa ndiposo mapulotini gha membrane yakuzungulira vyakupangika na ungweru.

Vyakumera vikutora ungweru chomenechomene mwakugwiliskira ntchito mtundu chlorophyll. Chigaŵa cha girini cha ungweru chikukoleka yayi kweni chikuwoneka, ndicho chifukwa chake vyakumera vinandi vikuŵa na mtundu wa girini. Padera pa chlorophyll, vyakumera vikugwiriskiraso ncito mitundu nga ni carotene na xanthophyll.[25] Nyengo zikugwiliskiraso ntchito chlorophyll, kweni paliso mitundu yinyake yakupambanapambana nga ni phycocyanin, carotenes, na xanthophylls mu nyere zakubiriŵira, phycoerythrin mu nyere zakufipa (rhodophytes) na fucoxanthin mu nyere za bulawuni na diatoms ivyo vikupangiska kuti paŵe mitundu yakupambanapambana.

Vinthu ivi vikuŵikika mu vyakumera na mu nyanja mu vigaŵa ivyo vikuchemeka kuti mapulotini gha antenna. Mu mapulotini agha, mitundu ya vithuzithuzi yikuŵikika kuti yigwirenge ntchito pamoza. Kusazgako kwa mapulotini kwanthena uku kukuchemekaso kuti complex yakuvuna ungweru. [26]

Nangauli maselo ghose agho ghali mu vigaŵa vyakubiriŵira vya chakumera ghali na chloroplasts, kweni ghanandi ghakusangika mu vigaŵa ivyo vikupangika mwapadera ivyo vikuchemeka mahamba. Mitundu yinyake iyo yikuzgoŵera malo gha ungweru wankhongono wa dazi na aridity, nga ni mitundu yinandi ya Euphorbia na cactus, yili na viŵaro vyawo vikuru vyakupangira vyakurya mu vimiti vyawo. Maselo agho ghali mu viŵaro vya mukati mwa hamba, agho ghakuchemeka mesophyll, ghangaŵa na maselo gha pakati pa 450,000 na 800,000 pa sikweya milimita yiliyose ya hamba. Pamwamba pa hamba pali waxy cuticle iyo yikuvikilira hamba ku kuthukira kwa maji ghanandi ndipo yikuchepeska kunjira kwa ultraviolet panji . buluu ungweru kuti kutentha kuchepeskeke. Layer ya epidermis iyo yikuwoneka makora yikupangiska kuti ungweru ujumphe mu maselo gha palisade gha mesophyll uko vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangika na ungweru vikuchitika.

Kuzgora kwakuthemba pa ungweru

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: Kuzgora kwakuthemba pa ungweru
Kuzgora kwakuthemba pa ungweru kwa Usanisinuru pa chiŵaro cha thylakoid

Mu vyakucitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru, molekyu yimoza ya mtundu chlorophyll yikutora photon yimoza ndipo yikutaya [[elekitironi] yimoza]. Elekitironi iyi yikutoleka na mtundu wakusinthika wa chlorophyll uwo ukuchemeka pheophytin, uwo ukujumpha elekitironi ku molekyulu ya quinone, kwamba kwenda kwa elekitironi pasi pa unyolo wakunyamura elekitironi uwo ukulongozgera ku umaliro . kuchepeska kwa NADP ku NADPH. Kusazga apo, ivi vikupangiska kuti paŵe Nkhongono za protoni (nkhongono) pa nkhongono ya chloroplast, iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito na ATP synthase pakupanga ATP . . Paumaliro, molekyulu ya chlorophyll yikusangaso elekitironi iyo yikataya para molekyulu ya maji yagaŵika mu nthowa yakuchemeka photolysis, iyo yikufumiska oxygen..

Equation yose ya vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru pasi pa mikhaliro ya magesi yambura kuzungulira mu vyakumera vyakubiriŵira ni:[27]

2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H+ + 3 ATP + O2

Ni wavelength yose yayi ya ungweru iyo yingawovwira kuti vinthu viŵeko. Nthowa yakupangira vinthu action spectrum yikuthemba pa mtundu wa pigment yakuwovwira iyo yilipo. Mwaciyerezgero, mu vyakumera vyakubiriŵira, mtundu wa nchito ukuyana waka na mtundu wa kuyamwa kwa chlorophylls na carotenoids na nsonga zakuyamwa mu ungweru wa violet-buluu na wakufipa. Mu red algae, spectrum ya nchito ni ungweru wa buluu-wobiriŵira, uwo ukupangiska kuti algae izi zigwiriskirenge ncito ungweru wa buluu kuti zikule mu maji ghakunyang’amira agho ghakusefa ma wavelength ghatali (ungweru wakufipa) agho ghakugwiriskirika ncito . na vyakumera vyakubiriŵira ivyo vikuŵa pachanya pa charu. Chigaŵa icho chikukoleka yayi cha light spectrum ndicho chikupereka vyamoyo vyakupangika na ungwerus mtundu wawo (mwachiyelezgero, vyakumera vyakubiriŵira, ndere zakufipa, mabakiteriya gha pepo) ndipo ni . ivyo vikugwira ntchito viŵi yayi pa photosynthesis mu vyamoyo vyakuyana waka.

Z scheme

[lemba | kulemba source]
"Scheme ya Z"

Mu vyakumeras, vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungwerus vikuchitika mu chiŵaro cha thylakoids cha chloroplasts uko vikulongozga kupanga ATP na . NADPH. Ivyo vikuchitika chifukwa cha ungweru vikuŵa vya mitundu yiŵiri: vyakuzungulira na vyambura kuzungulira.

Mu vyakuchitika vyambura kuzungulira, ma photon ghakukoleka mu ungweru-kuvuna antenna complexes wa photosystem II na chlorophyll na vinyake vinthu vyakovwira (wonani chithuzithuzi " Z-chiŵembu"). Kuyamwa kwa photon na antenna complex kukufwatura electron na nthowa iyo yikuchemeka kupatukana kwa mtengo uwo ukupangika na photon. Nthowa ya antenna yili pakatikati pa molekyulu ya chlorophyll iyo yili mu malo ghakucitirapo vinthu ghakupangika na vithuzithuzi II. Elekitironi iyo yikufwatuka yikutoleka na elekitironi-wakuzomerezga molekyulu yakwamba, pheophytin. Apo ma electron ghakunyamulika kwizira mu unyolo wa kutumizga magesi (icho chikuchemeka Z-scheme icho chikulongoreka pa chithuzithuzi), nkhongono ya chemiosmotic yikupangika na kupompa maprotoni (H+) kuzingilira nyengo na kunjira mu malo gha thylakoid. ATP synthase enzyme yikugwiriskira ncito nkhongono ya chemiosmotic iyo kuti yipangire ATP pa nyengo ya kuwoneka, apo NADPH ni cipangizo ca redox cakumalira mu Z- . dongosolo. Elekitironi yikunjira mu chlorophyll molekyu mu Vithuzithuzi I. Ku malo agha likukondweskaso ungweru uwo ukukoleka na photosystem iyo. Kufuma apo elekitironi yikujumpha mu unyolo wa electron acceptors iyo yikupelekerako nkhongono zake zinyake. Nkhongono izo zikupelekeka ku ŵapokelera magesi zikugwiriskirika nchito kuti zisunthire ion ya haidrojenis kujumpha mu membrane ya thylakoid ku lumen. Paumaliro, elekitironi yikugwiriskirika ncito kuti kucepeskako coenzyme NADP na H+ ku NADPH (iyo yili na . ntchito mu ungweru-wakujiyimira paŵekha); pa nyengo iyo, nthowa ya elekitironi iyo yikumara.

Nthowa yakuzungulira yikuyana waka na iyo yikuzungulira yayi kweni yikupambana chifukwa yikupanga ATP pera, ndipo palije NADP yakuchepeskeka (NADPH) iyo yikupangika. Kuchitapo kanthu kwakuzungulira kukuchitika pa photosystem I pera. Para electron yafumiskikapo pa photosystem, electron yikujumpha mu mamolekyu ghakupokelera electron na kuwelera ku photosystem I, kufuma apo yikafumiskikira, ndicho chifukwa chake zina lakuti cyclic reaction.

photolysis ya maji

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: Photodissociation and Kusinthika kwa Okisijeni

Kunyamura kwa magesi gha mzere kwizira mu nthowa ya vithuzithuzi yizamufumapo malo ghakupangira vinthu ya nthowa ya vithuzithuzi iyo oxidized. Kukwezga electron yinyake kuzamukhumbikwira dankha kuchepeskaso malo ghakuchitikirapo vinthu. Ma elekitironi ghakukondweska agho ghakutayika kufuma ku malo ghakucitirapo vinthu (P700) gha photosystem I ghakunjilirapo na kusamuska kufuma ku plastocyanin, agho ma elekitironi ghake ghakufuma ku kunyamura kwa ma elekitironi kwizira mu photosystem II. Photosystem II, nga ni chigaŵa chakwamba cha Z-scheme, yikukhumbikwira kuti paŵe chinthu cha kuwaro cha magesi kuti chichepeske malo ghake ghakuchitira vinthu ghakupangika na oxidized chlorophyll a. Chinthu icho chikupangiska kuti vyakumera vyakubiriŵira na cyanobacteria viŵe na ma electron ghakupangira vyakurya, ni maji. Ma molekyulu ghaŵiri gha maji ghakupangika na oxidation na nkhongono ya vigaŵa vinayi vyakulondezgapo vyakupatukana vya nkhongono vya photosystem II kuti viŵe na molekyulu ya diatomic oxygen na hydrogen ayoni zinayi. Ma electron agho ghakupangika ghakusamuskika ku tyrosine ghakukhalapo agho ghakupangika na nkhongono ya P680+. Ici cikupangiska kuti P680 yiŵeso na luso lwa kutora fotoni yinyake na kufwatura kupatukana na vithuzithuzi elekitironi yinyake. Kusintha kwa maji ku kupangiska mu photosystem II na chigaŵa cha redox-active icho chili na ma ayoni ghanayi gha manganese na ayoni ya calcium; chinthu icho chikupangiska kuti maji ghaŵe na oksijeni ichi chikukaka mamolekyu gha maji ghaŵiri ndipo chili na vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska kuti maji ghaŵe na oxidizing (vithuzithuzi vya Kok vya S-state). Ma ayoni gha haidrojeni ghakufumiskika mu thylakoid lumen ndipo ntheura ghakovwira pa nkhongono ya chemiosmotic iyo yikupangiska kuti ATP yipangike. Oxygen ni waste product wa vyakuchitika ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, kweni vyamoyo vinandi pa Charu chapasi vikugwiliskira ntchito oxygen na nkhongono zake kuti vyamoyo vipume, kusazgapo vyamoyo ivyo vikupanga vyakurya vya ungweru. [28][29]

Kuzgora kwambula kuthemba pa ungweru

[lemba | kulemba source]

chizingili cha Calvin

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: Light-independent reactions and Carbon fixation

Mu vyakujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru (panji "mdima") vyakuchitika, enzyme RuBisCO yikukora CO2 kufuma ku mlengalenga ndipo, mu ndondomeko iyo yikuchemeka Calvin cycle, yikugwiriskira ncito . likupangika sonosono NADPH ndipo likufumiska shuga wa carbon zitatu, ilo pamanyuma likupangika kuphatikizgika kuti lipangire sucrose na starch. Equation yose ya vyakuchitika vyambura kujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru mu vyakumera vyakubiriŵira ni[27]:128

3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3 H2O
Kuwonekera kwa msinkhu wa Calvin na kukhazikika kwa carbon

Kuŵika carbon kukupanga shuga wapakati wa carbon zitatu, uyo pamanyuma wakusinthika kuŵa vinthu vyaumaliro vya carbohydrate. shuga wa carbon wambura kusuzga uyo wakupangika na ungweru wakugwiliskirika nchito kuti wapangire vyakupangika na vyamoyo vinyake, nga ni vyakuzengazenga cellulose, vyakupangika vya [ 1 ]. [lipid]] na amino acid vyakupangika na vyamoyo, panji nga ni mafuta mu kupuma kwa maselo. Ici cikucitika mu vyakumera pera yayi, kweniso mu vinyama apo carbon na nkhongono kufuma ku vyakumera vikujumpha mu unyolo wa vyakurya.

kukhazikika panji kuchepeskako kwa kaboni dioxide ni nthowa iyo carbon dioxide wakusazgikira na shuga wa carbon dioxide, [[ribulose 1,5]. -bisphosphate]], ku kupanga viŵiri molekyu vya chinthu chitatu cha carbon, . glycerate 3-fosifeti, uyo wakuchemekaso kuti 3-fosifosifaiti. Glycerate 3-phosphate, para pali ATP na NADPH ivyo vikupangika pa nyengo ya vigaŵa vyakuthemba pa ungweru, vikuchepeskeka ku glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Ici cikucemekaso kuti 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) panji, mwakudumura, kuti triose phosphate. Vinthu vinandi (vinthu vinkhondi pa vinthu vinkhondi na chimoza) vya glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ivyo vikupangika vikugwiriskirika nchito kuti vipangiskeso ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate mwakuti ndondomeko iyi yilutilire. Ntheura, ma phosphate gha triose agho ghakupangikaso yayi kanandi ghakusazganako na kupanga ma phosphate gha hexose, agho paumaliro ghakupanga sucrose, starch, na cellulose, ndiposo shuga na . mafupa. Shuga uyo wakupangika pa nyengo ya carbon kusintha kwa thupi wakupanga mafupa gha carbon agho ghangagwiliskirika nchito pa kusintha kwa thupi ghanyake nga ni kupanga amino acid na lipids.

Nthowa zakuŵikamo carbon

[lemba | kulemba source]

Pa mtunda

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: C4 carbon fixation, CAM photosynthesis, and Alarm photosynthesis
Overview of C4 carbon fixation. (Chithunzithunzi ichi chikulongora mwakubudika lactic acid m'malo mwa pyruvate, ndipo mitundu yose iyo yikumara na "-ate" yikulongoreka nga ni asidi wakukolerana, nga ni malic acid. na vinyake).

Mu malo ghakotcha na ghakuwomira, vyakumera vikujara stomata vyawo kuti maji ghaleke kutayika. Pa nyengo iyi, Template:Co2 yizamucepa ndipo mphepo mpweya, iyo yikupangika na vyakucitika vya ungweru vya kupanga vyakurya, yizamusazgikira, ndipo ivi vipangiskenge kuti kupuma kwa ungweru kusazgikirengeko na oxygenase. Ntchito ya [[Rubisco| kuchepa kwa carbon kukhazikika. Vyakumera vinyake vikuŵa na kusintha nthowa zakusazgirako Template:Co2 mu mahamba mu nyengo izi.[30]

Vyakumera ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya C4 kuŵika carbon vikuŵika carbon dioxide mu maselo gha mesophyll mwa kusazgako . ku molekyulu ya kaboni yitatu phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), ivyo vikuchitika kupangiska na . enzyme yakuchemeka PEP carboxylase, iyo yikupanga asidi wa carbon zinayi asidi wa oxaloacetic. Oxaloacetic acid panji malate iyo yikupangika na nthowa iyi yikupangika kusinthika ku maselo ghapadera bundle sheath uko kuli enzyme RuBisCO na enzyme zinyake za Calvin cycle, ndipo . apo Template:Co2 wakufumiskika na kuwuskapo wa asidi wa carbon zinayi ni . ntheura ŵakukhazikika na mulimo wa RuBisCO ku vigaŵa vitatu vya carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acid. Kupatukana kwa thupi kwa RuBisCO kufuma ku mphepo-kupanga ungweru kukuchepeska photorespiration na kusazgirako Template:Co2 kukhazikika ndipo, ntheura, photosynthetic nkhongono ya hamba.[31] [[C4 carbon fixation|Template:C4 vyakumera]] vingapanga shuga munandi kuluska [[C3 carbon fixation|Template:C3 vyakumera]] mu nyengo za ungweru ukuru na kutentha. Vinthu vinandi vyakuzirwa vyakulima ni vyakumera vya Template:C4, kusazgapo chimanga, mabele, mijuwa, na mapira. Vyakumera ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito yayi PEP-carboxylase pakukhozga carbon vikucemeka C3 vyakumera cifukwa cakuti kusintha kwa carbon kwakwamba, uko kukupangika na RuBisCO, kukupanga asidi wa carbon watatu 3-phosphoglyceric mwaluŵiro mu 1990. Msinkhu wa Calvin-Benson. Pafupifupi 90% ya vyakumera vikugwiriskira ncito Template:C3 carbon, pakuyaniska na 3% ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito Template:C4 carbon;[32] however, the evolution of Template:C4 in over sixty plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution.[30] C2 photosynthesis, which involves carbon-concentration by selective breakdown of photorespiratory glycine, is both an evolutionary precursor to Template:C4 and a useful carbon-concentrating mechanism in its own right.[33]

Vinthu vyakumera, nga ni cacti na vinandi vyakumera, vikugwiliskiraso ntchito PEP carboxylase kuti vikole mphepo ya carbon dioxide mu nthowa iyo yikuchemeka Kusintha kwa asidi wa Crassulacean (CAM). Kupambana na Template:C4 metabolism, iyo pa malo yikupatuska Template:Co2 kukhazikika ku PEP kufuma ku msinkhu wa Calvin, CAM pa nyengo yikupatuska ndondomeko ziŵiri izi. Vyakumera vya CAM vikuŵa na mahamba ghakupambana na vyakumera vya Template:C3, ndipo vikunozga Template:Co2 usiku, apo stomata yawo njakujulika. Maluwa gha CAM ghakusunga Template:Co2 chomenechomene mu mtundu wa malic acid kwizira mu kupanga phosphoenolpyruvate ku oxaloacetate, iyo pamanyuma yikuchepeskeka ku malate. Kufumiskikapo kwa malate muhanya kukufumiska Template:Co2 mukati mwa mahamba, ntheura kukupangiska kuti carbon yiŵe yakukhora ku 3-phosphoglycerate na RuBisCO. CAM yikugwiriskirika ncito na mitundu ya vyakumera 16,000.[34]

Calcium-oxalate-vyakumera ivyo vikuwunjika, nga ni [[Amaranthus hybridus na Colobanthus quitensis, vikulongora kusintha kwa nthowa yakupangira vyakurya apo calcium oxalate makristalo ghakugwira ntchito nga ni nkhongono kaboni viziŵa, kupereka mphepo ya carbon dioxide (CO2) ku maselo ghakupanga vyakurya para ma stomata ghakujalika pacoko waka panji ghose. Nthowa iyi yikacemeka kuti alamu photosynthesis. Pa nyengo ya kusuzgika maghanoghano (mwachiyelezgero, kusoŵa kwa maji), oxalate iyo yikufuma mu makristalo gha calcium oxalate yikusinthika kuŵa CO2 na . oxalate oxidase enzyme, ndipo CO2 iyo yikupangika yingawovwira Calvin . mzere vyakuchitika. Kuchitapo kanthu haidrojeni peroxide (H2O2), [[Chinthu chakupangika na oxalate oxidase], chingaŵa kuwuskapo na catalase. Alarm photosynthesis yikwimira mtundu wa photosynthesis uwo ukwenera kusazgikira ku nthowa zakumanyikwa makora za C4 na CAM. Ndipouli, alarm photosynthesis, mwakupambana na nthowa izi, yikugwira nchito nga ni pampu ya biochemical iyo yikutora carbon kufuma mukati mwa viŵaro (panji kufuma mu dongo) ndiposo kufuma mu mlengalenga yayi.[35][36]

Mu maji

[lemba | kulemba source]

Cyanobacteria ŵali na carboxysomes, awo ŵakusazgirako unandi wa Template:Co2 kuzungulira RuBisCO kuti ŵasazgireko msinkhu wa kupanga vyakurya. Enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, iyo yili mukati mwa carboxysome, yikufumiska CO2 kufuma ku ma ayoni gha maji (HCO−
3 ). Pambere CO2 yindathandazgike kufumamo, RuBisCO wakukhazikika mukati mwa carboxysome mwaluŵiro wakuyiwuskapo. Ma ayoni gha HCO−
3 ghakupangika kufuma ku CO2 kuwaro kwa selo na carbonic anhydrase yinyake ndipo ghakupompa mwamwamphu mu selo na puloteni wa membrane. Iwo ŵangajumpha yayi pa membrane apo ŵakuŵa na charge, ndipo mukati mwa cytosol ŵakuzgokaso kuŵa CO2 pachoko na pachoko chomene kwambura wovwiri wa carbonic anhydrase. Ici cikupangiska kuti ma ayoni gha HCO−
3 ghawunjikike mukati mwa selo kufuma apo ghakuthandazgikira mu ma carboxysomes. 2003 |mutu= Nthowa zakuŵikamo CO2 mu cyanobacteria: vigaŵa vya maselo, kusiyana kwawo na kusintha kwawo |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga vyakumera |buku= 54 |magazini= 383 |masamba= 609–622 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erg076 |doi-access= yaulere |pmid= 12554704 [}}</f> [Pyrenoid]]s mu nyere na . hornwort nayo yikuchita kuti yiŵikepo mtima pa Template:Co2 kuzungulira RuBisCO.[37][38]

Ndondomeko na vyakuchitika

[lemba | kulemba source]

ndondomeko yose ya photosynthesis yikuchitika mu vigaŵa vinayi:[11]

Stage Event Site Time scale
1 Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll Thylakoid membranes in the chloroplasts Femtosecond to picosecond
2 Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions Picosecond to nanosecond
3 Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis Microsecond to millisecond
4 Carbon fixation and export of stable products Stroma of the chloroplasts and the cell cytosol Millisecond to second

Kugwira ntchito makora

[lemba | kulemba source]
Nkhani ikulu: Kupanga vinthu mwakukwana

Vyakumeras kanandi kusintha ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko na kugwira ntchito kwa ungweru kwa 3–6%.[39][40] Kuŵala uko kukukoleka uko kukusinthika yayi ni kuthandazgika chomenechomene nga ni kutentha, na chigaŵa chichoko (1–2%) chikufumiskikaso nga ni chlorophyll fluorescence pa nyengo yitali (kufipa) utali wa mafundes. Fundo iyi yikuzomerezga kupima kwa kuchitika kwa ungweru kwa ungweru mwakugwiliskira ntchito chlorophyll fluorometer[41]

Kugwira ntchito kwa vyakumera vyeneko kukupambana na ungweru uwo ukusinthika, nkhongono ya ungweru, kutentha, na chiŵelengero cha carbon . dioxide mu mlengalenga, ndipo yingaŵa yakupambanapambana kufuma pa 0.1% m’paka pa 8%.[42] By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices. Scientists are studying photosynthesis in hopes of developing plants with increased yield.[40]

Kugwira ntchito kwa ungweru na mdima kungapimika, kweni ubwezi pakati pa viŵiri ivi ungaŵa wakusuzga. Mwaciyelezgero, vinthu ivyo vikucitika pa ungweru vikupanga ATP na NADPH nkhongono molekyu, izo C3 vyakumera vingagwiriskikiya nchitu pa kuŵika carbon pamwenga kupuma kwakuthuzi.[43] Pa chifukwa ichi, nchambura kumanyikwa kuti mulembis wakupambaniska pakati pa ntchito iyo yikuchitika pasi pa [[Photorespiration#Vinthu ivyo vikukhwaska kupuma kwa ungweru|vinthu ivyo vikukhwaska yayi kupuma kwa ungweru na pasi pa viyezgo vya kupuma kwa ungweru]. ].[44] Chlorophyll wakuphatikizgika fluorometer na nthowa yakusinthaniska mpweya yingafufuza vyose ivyo vikuchitika pa ungweru na mdima para ŵakusanda ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ziŵiri zakupambana pamoza. <zina la ref="Ribas-Carbo-2010">Template:Zunurani magazini</ref> Vinthu vyakuwonera mphepo za Infrared na vinyake [ [Hygrometer|vyakuwonera chinyezi]] vikuŵa vyakuzirwa chomene kuti vipimire kusambizga vyakupangika na ungweru vya CO2 na vya ΔH2O kugwiriskira ncito kugomezgeka nthowa. CO2 kanandi yikupimika mu μmols/(m2/s), vigaŵa pa miliyoni, panji buku pa miliyoni; ndipo H2O yikupimika chomene mu mmols/(m2/s) panji mu mbars. Pakupima Kusazgikira kwa CO2, ΔH2O, kutentha kwa mahamba, kufinyikizgika kwa barometric, malo gha mahamba, na kuthukira kwa mahamba . (PAR), vikuŵa vyamachitiko kupenda, "A" panji kusambizga carbon, "E" panji kuthukira, "gs" panji stomatal . kulongozga, na "Ci" panji CO ya mukati mwa maselo. kusinthaniska miyeso, kasi ŵangatiphalira vici pa ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵantu ŵaleke kucita vinthu ivyo vikupangika na ungweru? Nthowa na uko vikupangiska kuti paŵe viheni |buku= Buku la Kuyezga vyakumera |buku= 54 |magazini= 392 |masamba= 2393–2401 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erg262 |doi-access=waulere |pmid= 37}f Ndipouli, nchakumanyikwa comene kugwiliskira nchito . chlorophyll fluorescence ya kupima kusuzgika kwa vyakumera, apo nchakwenelera, chifukwa vigaŵa ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito chomene FV/FM na Y(II) panji F/FM' vingapimika mu masekondi ghachoko waka, kuzomerezga kufufuza kwa vikuru . unandi wa vyakumera.Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid parameter in <ref> tag

Nthowa yakusinthaniska mpweya iyo yikupereka kulaŵilira kwa CO2 mlingo, pachanya na pasi pa kuzungulira, yikuzomerezga nchito yakumanyikwa ya kuyezga ma curve gha A / Ci . , pa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya CO2, kuti vimanyiske umo chakumera chikuchitira pakupanga vyakurya.[45]

Kusazgikira kwa chlorophyll fluorometer – ndondomeko ya kusinthana kwa mphepo yikuzomerezga kurongosora makora kuyezga kwakuzgora kwa ungweru na nthowa zake. Nangauli nthowa zakusinthana na mpweya zingapima Ci, panji kuti substomatal . CO2 mlingo, kusazgirapo kwa vipimilo vya chlorophyll vyakuphatikizgika vyakuwoneka vikupangiska kuti vipimiro vyakwenelera vya CC, vipimilo vya CO2 ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha . ya kupangika mu chloroplast, kuti yinjire mu malo gha Ci.Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid parameter in <ref> tag[46][47] Vinyake sonosono apa masambiro ghakulongoraso kuti vyakupangika na ungweru vingaŵa kuti vikayamba pafupifupi vyaka 3.4 biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha,[48] nangauli umboni wakwamba wakulongosora umo vinthu vikupangika na ungweru ukufumira ku viŵaro vya thylakoid ivyo vikusungika mu ma chert gha vyaka 1.75 biliyoni.[49]

Oxygenic photosynthesis ndiyo yikupangiska chomene oxygen mu Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi, ndipo kuwoneka kwake kwakwamba nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka kuti soka la oksijeni. Geological ukaboni ukulongora kuti mphepo yakupangika na ungweru, nga ni iyo yikuchitika mu cyanobacteria, yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu nyengo ya Paleoproterozoic pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Kupanga vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano mu vyakumeras na prokaryotes vinandi ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika na mphepo, kugwiliskira nchito maji nga ni wakupeleka magesi, agho ghakupangika oxidized ku mphepo ya maselo mu malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru.

Kukhala pamoza na kufumapo kwa ma chloroplasts

[lemba | kulemba source]

[[Fayilo:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|left|Maselo gha vyakumera agho ghali na chloroplasts ghakuwoneka (kufuma ku moss, Plagiomnium affine)]]

Magulu ghanandi gha vinyamas ghapanga symbiotic ubwezi na algae wakupangika na ungweru. Vinthu ivi vikusangika chomene mu makorali, siponji, na anemone ya mu nyanja. Ŵasayansi ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikuchitika chifukwa chakuti pulani ya thupis yipusu chomene na malo ghapachanyas ghakuru gha vinyama ivi pakuyaniska na volumes zawo.[50] Vinyake vya jinis kufuma ku chakumera selo nucleus vyasamuskika ku slug. s, mwakuti ma chloroplast ghaŵe na mapulotini agho ghakukhumbikwira kuti . Kupona. jini psbO ku somba za mu nyanja za Elysia chlorotica 105 |magazini= 46 |masamba= 17867–17871 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..10517867R |doi= 10.1073/04-9 ulele 19004808

Nthowa yinyake yakukolerana comene yingalongosora umo ma chloroplast ghakambira. Ma chloroplasts ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuyana na mabakiteriya, kusazgapo chromosome wakuzungulira, mtundu wa prokaryotic ribosome, na vyakuyana waka mapulotini agho ghali mu malo ghakupangika na ungweru.< 1998 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapulasitiki: kufumapo, kusiyanasiyana, vyakuchitika |journal= Maghanoghano ghasono mu Genetics & Kukura |buku= 8 |magazini= 6 |masamba= 655–661 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 = 9914199 }}</ref>[51] nangauli umboni wakwamba wakulongosora umo vinthu vikupangika na ungweru ukufumira ku viŵaro vya thylakoid ivyo vikusungika mu ma chert gha vyaka 1.75 biliyoni.[52]

Oxygenic photosynthesis ndiyo yikupangiska chomene oxygen mu Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi, ndipo kuwoneka kwake kwakwamba nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka kuti soka la oksijeni. Geological ukaboni ukulongora kuti mphepo yakupangika na ungweru, nga ni iyo yikuchitika mu cyanobacteria, yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu nyengo ya Paleoproterozoic pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Kupanga vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano mu vyakumeras na prokaryotes vinandi ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika na mphepo, kugwiliskira nchito maji nga ni wakupeleka magesi, agho ghakupangika oxidized ku mphepo ya maselo mu malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru.

Kukhala pamoza na kufumapo kwa ma chloroplasts

[lemba | kulemba source]

[[Fayilo:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|left|Maselo gha vyakumera agho ghali na chloroplasts ghakuwoneka (kufuma ku moss, Plagiomnium affine)]]

Magulu ghanandi gha vinyamas ghapanga symbiotic ubwezi na algae wakupangika na ungweru. Vinthu ivi vikusangika chomene mu makorali, siponji, na anemone ya mu nyanja. Ŵasayansi ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikuchitika chifukwa chakuti pulani ya thupis yipusu chomene na malo ghapachanyas ghakuru gha vinyama ivi pakuyaniska na volumes zawo.[53] Vinyake vya jinis kufuma ku chakumera selo nucleus vyasamuskika ku slug. s, mwakuti ma chloroplast ghaŵe na mapulotini agho ghakukhumbikwira kuti . Kupona. jini psbO ku somba za mu nyanja za Elysia chlorotica 105 |magazini= 46 |masamba= 17867–17871 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..10517867R |doi= 10.1073/04-9 ulele 19004808

Nthowa yinyake yakukolerana comene yingalongosora umo ma chloroplast ghakambira. Ma chloroplasts ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuyana na mabakiteriya, kusazgapo chromosome wakuzungulira, mtundu wa prokaryotic ribosome, na vyakuyana waka mapulotini agho ghali mu malo ghakupangika na ungweru.< 1998 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapulasitiki: kufumapo, kusiyanasiyana, vyakuchitika |journal= Maghanoghano ghasono mu Genetics & Kukura |buku= 8 |magazini= 6 |masamba= 655–661 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 = 9914199 }}</ref>[54] nangauli umboni wakwamba wakulongosora umo vinthu vikupangika na ungweru ukufumira ku viŵaro vya thylakoid ivyo vikusungika mu ma chert gha vyaka 1.75 biliyoni.[55]

Oxygenic photosynthesis ndiyo yikupangiska chomene oxygen mu Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi, ndipo kuwoneka kwake kwakwamba nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka kuti soka la oksijeni. Geological ukaboni ukulongora kuti mphepo yakupangika na ungweru, nga ni iyo yikuchitika mu cyanobacteria, yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu nyengo ya Paleoproterozoic pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Kupanga vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano mu vyakumeras na prokaryotes vinandi ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika na mphepo, kugwiliskira nchito maji nga ni wakupeleka magesi, agho ghakupangika oxidized ku mphepo ya maselo mu malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru.

Kukhala pamoza na kufumapo kwa ma chloroplasts

[lemba | kulemba source]

[[Fayilo:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|left|Maselo gha vyakumera agho ghali na chloroplasts ghakuwoneka (kufuma ku moss, Plagiomnium affine)]]

Magulu ghanandi gha vinyamas ghapanga symbiotic ubwezi na algae wakupangika na ungweru. Vinthu ivi vikusangika chomene mu makorali, siponji, na anemone ya mu nyanja. Ŵasayansi ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikuchitika chifukwa chakuti pulani ya thupis yipusu chomene na malo ghapachanyas ghakuru gha vinyama ivi pakuyaniska na volumes zawo.[56] Vinyake vya jinis kufuma ku chakumera selo nucleus vyasamuskika ku slug. s, mwakuti ma chloroplast ghaŵe na mapulotini agho ghakukhumbikwira kuti . Kupona. jini psbO ku somba za mu nyanja za Elysia chlorotica 105 |magazini= 46 |masamba= 17867–17871 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..10517867R |doi= 10.1073/04-9 ulele 19004808

Nthowa yinyake yakukolerana comene yingalongosora umo ma chloroplast ghakambira. Ma chloroplasts ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuyana na mabakiteriya, kusazgapo chromosome wakuzungulira, mtundu wa prokaryotic ribosome, na vyakuyana waka mapulotini agho ghali mu malo ghakupangika na ungweru.< 1998 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapulasitiki: kufumapo, kusiyanasiyana, vyakuchitika |journal= Maghanoghano ghasono mu Genetics & Kukura |buku= 8 |magazini= 6 |masamba= 655–661 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 = 9914199 }}</ref>Longola ivyo vyabudika: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Mmalo mwa chlorophyll ŵakugwiliskira ntchito rhodopsins, iyo yikusintha nkhongono ya ungweru kuŵa . ion gradients kweni yingapangiska yayi kuti magesi ghasunthike Ivyo vikuchitika. = 140 |masamba= 233-249 153285864 |s2cid= 153285864 }} , Rodrigez-Valera F, Ford Doolittle W, Papke RT |dazi= Meyi 2007 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapampu gha rhodopsin ion mu haloarchaea |magazini= BMC Kusintha kwa Biology | ..79S |kuchita= 10.1186/1471-2148-7-79 |kufika pa doi= kwaulere |

Mu mabakiteriya mitundu eyiti ya vyakupangapanga vyakupangika na ungweru yikumanyikwa sono:[57] Pakuti mlengalenga wa pa charu chapasi ukaŵavya mphepo pafupifupi pa nyengo iyo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika, ŵakugomezga kuti cyanobacteria yakwamba iyo yikapanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru yikapanga yayi mphepo.{{ref> lembani buku |ŵalembi= Smith A |chaka= 2010 |mutu= Sayansi ya vyakumera |mupharazgi= Sayansi ya Garland |malo= New York |isbn= 978-0-8153-4025-6 |url= 5 |zuŵa lakufikapo= 2019-04-17 |zuŵa lakusungirako= 2023-01-19 |archive-url= 20230119181851 / mabuku. /ref> Ukaboni uwo ulipo kufuma ku masambiro gha vyamoyo vya pa charu chapasi gha Archean (>2500 Ma) libwe la mchengas likulongora kuti umoyo ukaŵako 3500 Ma, kweni fumbo lakuti nyengo iyo mphepo ya oxygen yikapangikira yindazgoreke. Windo lakuwonekerathu la vyamoyo vyakale pa cyanobacteria kusintha likajulika pafupifupi 2000 Ma, kuvumbura vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana kale vya cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria yikalutilira kuŵa yikuru yakupanga chomene ya mphepo mu nyengo yose ya Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), chifukwa chakuti kapangikiro ka redox ka nyanja kakatemwanga vyamoyo ivyo vikakwaniska kukhozga nayitrogeni.[58] Nyengo zakubiriŵira zikakolerana na cyanobacteria nga ni vinyama vikuru ivyo vikupanga mphepo pa mashelufu gha pa charu chose pafupi na umaliro wa Proterozoic, kweni na Mesozoic (251-66 Ma) kuwala kwa dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, na diatoms ndivyo vikapangiska kuti kupanga kwakwamba kwa mphepo mu maji gha mu nyanja kuŵe nga umo vikuŵira mazuŵa ghano. Cyanobacteria yikulutilira kuŵa yakuzirwa ku vyamoyo vya mu nyanjas nga ni ŵanthu ŵakwamba awo ŵakupanga oxygen mu gyres za nyanja, nga ni awo ŵakupangiska kuti nayitrogeni waŵe wakukhora, ndipo, mu kawonekero kakusinthika, nga ni plastids ya nyanja . mchere. 2008 |mutu= The Cyanobacteria: Biology ya Mamolekyulu, Genomics na Kusintha kwa Vinthu |buku= 1st |wakupharazga= Caister Academic Press | id = xgMahO1BXrQC | 2019-04-17 |zuŵa-la-kusungirako= 2023-01-19 |kusungamo-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181852/https://mabuku. url-mkhalidwe= wamoyo }}</ref>

Mbiri ya kuyezga

[lemba | kulemba source]

Kusanga

[lemba | kulemba source]

Nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vya photosynthesis vindamanyikwe makora, kweni equation yose ya photosynthesis yikumanyikwa kufuma mu vilimika vya m’ma 1800.

Fayilo:Chithunzithunzi cha Jan. 1674

Jan van Helmont wakamba kufufuza wa ndondomeko pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1600 apo wakapima makora ukuru wa dongo . chakumera chikaŵa kuti chikugwiriskira nchito ndiposo unandi wa chakumera apo chikakura. Pamanyuma pakuwona kuti unandi wa dongo ukasintha vichoko waka, iyo hypothesized kuti unandi wa kukura chakumera ukwenera kufuma ku maji, chinthu . wakasazgapo pa chakumera icho chikaŵa mu mphika. Ivyo wakaghanaghananga vikaŵa vyakuti kurongosora makora – vinandi ivyo vikusangika vikufuma ku carbon dioxide pamoza na maji. Ndipouli, ici cikaŵa cilongolero cakuti cigaŵa cikuru ca vyakumera biomass yikufuma ku vinthu ivyo vikupangika na ungweru, ku dongo yayi.

Joseph Priestley, wasayansi wa vya kemiko ndiposo muteŵeti, wakasanga kuti apo wakapatura buku la mphepo pasi pa chiŵiya chakuzgoŵezgeka na kuwotcha [ . [kandulo]] mu iyo (iyo yikafumiska CO2), kandulo yikaŵanga yakuwotcha chomene . mwaluŵiro, chomene pambere chindamare wax. Wakasangaso kuti mbeŵa yingaŵaso "kupweteka" mphepo. Pamanyuma wakalongora kuti chakumera chingawezgerapo mphepo iyo kandulo na mbeŵa vikapwetekeka. K, Kawai G, Griffiths A |dazi= Seputembala 2012 |mutu= Chiyelezgero cha Charu chapasi chambura kukhora mu 2012. Chiŵiya cha belu cha Priestley |journal= Extreme Physiology & Medicine |buku= 1 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 4 |doi= 10.1186/2046-7648-1-4 | </ref>

Mu 1779, Jan Ingenhousz wakawerezgapo kuyezga kwa Priestley. Wakasanga kuti ni nkhongono ya ungweru wa dazi pa chakumera ichi icho chingapangiska kuti chiwuske mbeŵa mu maora ghachoko waka. = Gest H |chaka= 2000 |mutu= Kuchindika kwa vyaka 200 kwa Dr. Jan Ingen-Housz, MD (1730-1799), mupayiniya wa kufufuza vyakupangika na ungweru |journal= Kafukufuku wa vyakupangika na ungweru |buku= 63 |magazini= 2 |masamba= 183–190 |doi= 10.1023/A:1006460024843 |ci-mi2d=8p2d=8 | 22970505

Mu 1796, Jean Senebier, wa ku Switzerland muliska, wasayansi wa vyakumera, na wasayansi wa vyakumera, wakalongora kuti vyakumera vyakubiriŵira vikurya carbon dioxide ndipo . kufwatura mphepo ya oksijeni pasi pa nkhongono ya ungweru. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure wakalongora kuti kusazgikira kwa unandi wa chakumera apo chikukura kungaŵa chifukwa cha kutora CO2 pera yayi kweni chifukwa cha kusazgirako maji. Ntheura, fundo yakuti vyamoyo vikugwiriskira ncito nthowa yakupangira vyakurya (nga ni [shuga]]) yikalongosoreka.[59]

Kunozga

[lemba | kulemba source]

Cornelis Van Niel wakasanga vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa ivyo vikalongosoranga kemistri ya vyakupangika na ungweru. Pakusambira mabakiteriya gha sulfure gha pepo na mabakiteriya ghakubiriŵira, ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kulongora kuti ungweru ukuthemba pa redox reaction uwo haidrojeni wakuchepeska ( wakupeleka atomu yake nga ni elekitironi na protoni ku) carbon dioxide.

Robert Emerson wakasanga kuti ungweru ukuchita vinthu viŵiri mwa kuyezga umo vyakumera vikupangira vinthu mwakugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wa mafunde ghakupambanapambana. Na mtundu wakufipa pera, vyakuchitika vya ungweru vikaponderezgeka. Para ŵasazgako buluu na muswesi, ivyo vikafumamo vikaŵanga vinandi chomene. Ntheura, pakaŵa vithuzithuzi viŵiri, chimoza chikatora mafunde yakukwana 600 nm, chinyake chikatora mafunde agho ghakukwana 700 nm. Yakwamba yikumanyikwa kuti PSII, yachiŵiri ni PSI. PSI ili na chlorophyll "a" pera, PSII yili na chlorophyll "a" chomene na chlorophyll "b" yinandi iyo yilipo, pakati pa mitundu yinyake. Ivi vikusazgapo phycobilins, ivyo ni mitundu yakufipa na ya buluu ya mtundu wa mtundu wakufipa na wa buluu, mwakuyana, na fucoxanthol ya mtundu wa mtundu wa bulawuni na diatoms. Nthowa iyi yikupangiska chomene para kuyamwa kwa quanta kukuyana mu PSII na PSI, kukhozgera kuti nkhongono yakunjilirapo kufuma ku antenna complex yikugaŵika pakati pa PSI na PSII, iyo yikupereka nkhongono ku photochemistry.[60]

Robert Hill wakaghanaghananga kuti chinthu chinyake icho chikuchitika chikaŵa na chinthu chapakati pa b6 (sono ni plastoquinone), ndipo chinyake chikafuma ku cytochrome f kufika pa sitepe mu 1990. nthowa zakupangira vyakurya vyakupangika na carbohydrate. Ivi vikukolerana na plastoquinone, iyo yikukhumbikwira nkhongono kuti yichepeske cytochrome f. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakayezga kuti ŵalongore kuti mphepo iyo yikupangika apo vyakumera vyakubiriŵira vikufuma mu maji vikachitika na Hill mu 1937 na 1939. Wakalongora kuti chloroplasts izo zili paŵekha zikufumiska mphepo para pali vinthu vyambura kumanyikwa ivyo vikuchepeska mphepo nga ni iron . oxalate, ferisiyanidi panji benzoquinone pamanyuma pakuti ŵaŵa pa ungweru. Mu Hill vyakuchitika:[61]

Mu 1950, ukaboni wakwamba wakuyezgayezga wakuti kuli photophosphorylation mu vivo ukalongosoreka na Otto Kandler kugwiliskira nchito maselo ghambura kupwetekeka gha Chlorella na kumasulira ivyo wakasanga kuti vikuthemba pa ungweru . ATP kupanga. |ŵalembi= Kandler O |lembi-link= Otto Kandler |chaka= 1950 |mutu= Umoyo wakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na phosphatha na photosynthesis. I. Kusintha kwa phosphate mu Chlorella pyrenoidosa chifukwa cha kusintha kwa ungweru. 10.1515/znb-1950-0806 |s2cid= 97588826 |url= 1950-5b-0423.pdf |zuŵa-lakufikapo= 2018-06-26 |archive-url= Nkhongono zakuti: “ZNB-1950-5b-0423.pdf |zuŵa lakusungirako vinthu vyakale= 2018- 06-24 |url-mkhalidwe= wamoyo }}</wonani> Mu 1954, Daniyeli I. Arnon na ŵanyake. ŵakasanga kuti mu vitro mu chloroplasts yakupatulika na wovwiri wa P32. -link1= Daniel I. Arnon |chaka= 1954 |mutu= Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru na kujipatura makoloroplasiti. II. Photophosphorylation, kusintha kwa ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya phosphate cite magazini |ŵalembi= Arnon DI |mulembi-link= Daniel I. Arnon |chaka= 1956 |mutu= Kusintha kwa phosphorus na kupanga vyakumera |magazini= Kuwoneseskamo kwa chaka na chaka kwa umo vyakumera vikupangikira |buku= 7 |masamba= 325–354 |doi= 10.1146 pp.0716. .001545 }}</wonani>

Louis N. M. Duysens na Jan Amesz ŵakasanga kuti chlorophyll “a” yizamutora ungweru umoza, yizamupangiska kuti cytochrome f yiŵe na oxidation, apo chlorophyll “a” (na vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti thupi liŵe na ungweru) yizamutora ungweru unyake kweni yizamuchepeska cytochrome yeneyiyo iyo yikupangika na oxidation . , kuyowoya kuti viŵiri vyakuchitika vya ungweru vili mu mzere.

Kukula kwa fundo

[lemba | kulemba source]

Mu 1893, nkhwantha ya vyakumera ya ku America Charles Reid Barnes wakayowoya mazgu ghaŵiri, kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru na kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru, ghakukhwaskana na ndondomeko ya vyamoyo ya kupanga vinthu vyakusuzga vya carbon kufuma ku carbonic acid, para pali . chlorophyll, pasi pa nkhongono ya ungweru. Lizgu lakuti kupanga vyakurya likufumira ku Chigiriki phōs (φῶς, kuwala) na sýnthesis (σύνθεσις, kuŵika pamoza),[62]<ref>{{zunura buku la sayansi |ŵalembi= Liddell HG, Scott R

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  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Bryant, Donald A.; Frigaard, Niels-Ulrik (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". Trends in Microbiology. 14 (11): 488–496. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001. PMID 16997562.
  3. ↑ Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert B.; Campbel, Neil A. (2011). Biology (International ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. pp. 235, 244. ISBN 978-0-321-73975-9. This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation
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  42. ↑ Govindjee, Rajni. "What is Photosynthesis?". Biology at Illinois. Archived from the original on 27 Meyi 2014. Retrieved 17 Epulelo 2014.
  43. ↑ Template:Kuzunura buku< /ref> Elekitironis yingasefukiraso ku elekitironi yinyake . Baker NR, Oxborough K |chaka= 2004 |mutu= Mutu 3: Kuŵala kwa chlorophyll nga ni kafukufuku wa vyakupangapanga vyakupangika na ungweru Kupanga vinthu vyakuthupi |malo=Dordrecht, Netherlands |mupharazgi= Springer |masamba=66–79 |url ya mutu= 2023-01-19 |url-status=live }}< /ref><ref>Template:Kuyowoya za nyuzipepara
  44. ↑ Template:Zunurani magazini = Ubale pakati pa chipambi cha quantum . ya kunyamura kwa magesi ghakupangika na ungweru na kuzimya ungweru wa chlorophyll |journal= Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Nkhani Zakumanyikwa |buku = 990 | }}</wonani zina="Baker-2008">{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Baker NR |chaka= 2008 |mutu= Kuwoneka kwa chlorophyll: Kafukufuku wa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vivo |magazini= Kuwoneseskamo kwa chaka na chaka kwa vyamoyo vya vyakumera |buku= 59 | masamba= 89-113 10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092759 | Kuwoneka kwa chlorophyll kwa photosystem II kungapima umo ungweru ukuchitira, ndipo chipangizo chakuwonera mphepo ya infrareds chingapima umo mdima ukuchitira.<ref name="Bernacchi-2002">Template:Bernacchi CJ, Portis AR, Nakano H, von Caemmerer S, Long SP
  45. ↑ Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Long-2003
  46. ↑ {{zunurani nyuzipepara |ŵalembi= Hildner R, Brinks D, Nieder JB, Cogdell RJ, van Hulst NF |zuŵa= Juni 2013 |mutu= Kusintha kwa nkhongono kwakukolerana kwa quantum pa nthowa zakupambanapambana mu vigaŵa vimoza vyakuvunira ungweru |journal= Sayansi |buku= 340 |magazini= pages 6139 = 1448-1451 2013Sci...340.1448H |doi= 10.1126/sayansi.1235820 |

    Kusintha kwa vinthu

    [lemba | kulemba source]

    Template:Yikuru Template:Nyengo ya umoyo Vinthu vyakukhalamo vya ivyo vikughanaghanirika kuti ni vyamoyo ivyo vikupangika na ungweru vyamoyo vyasangika kuti vyakhalako vyaka 3.4 biliyoni.<ref>Template:Zunurani magazini

  47. ↑ Template:Kuzunura magazini
  48. ↑ Template:Zunurani magazini
  49. ↑ Chilengiwa. doi:10.1038 / s41586-023-06896-7. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |2= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Text "Catherine F." ignored (help)
  50. ↑ {{cite magazini |ŵalembi= Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE |mutu= Kukolerana kwa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vinyama |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga 1069–1080 |chaka= 2008 |pmid= 18267943 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erm328 | [vinyama vyakukhwaŵa]], nga ni Elysia viridis na Elysia chlorotica, nawo ŵakusunga ubwezi wa symbiotic na chloroplasts awo ŵakukora kufuma ku mtundu wa algae mu vyakurya vyawo. ndipo pamanyuma ŵakusunga mu mathupi ghawo (wonani Kleptoplasty). Ici cikovwira kuti vinyama ivi vikhaleko waka na ungweru kwa myezi yinandi pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR |dazi= Meyi 2000 |mutu= Vinyama vya mu nyanja ivyo vikugwira ntchito na nkhongono za zuŵa. 123 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 29–38 |doi= 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 |pmc= 1539252 |p02}re >Template:Kuzunura magazini
  51. ↑ Template:Kuzunura magazini
  52. ↑ Chilengiwa. doi:10.1038 / s41586-023-06896-7. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |2= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Text "Catherine F." ignored (help)
  53. ↑ {{cite magazini |ŵalembi= Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE |mutu= Kukolerana kwa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vinyama |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga 1069–1080 |chaka= 2008 |pmid= 18267943 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erm328 | [vinyama vyakukhwaŵa]], nga ni Elysia viridis na Elysia chlorotica, nawo ŵakusunga ubwezi wa symbiotic na chloroplasts awo ŵakukora kufuma ku mtundu wa algae mu vyakurya vyawo. ndipo pamanyuma ŵakusunga mu mathupi ghawo (wonani Kleptoplasty). Ici cikovwira kuti vinyama ivi vikhaleko waka na ungweru kwa myezi yinandi pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR |dazi= Meyi 2000 |mutu= Vinyama vya mu nyanja ivyo vikugwira ntchito na nkhongono za zuŵa. 123 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 29–38 |doi= 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 |pmc= 1539252 |p02}re >Template:Kuzunura magazini
  54. ↑ Template:Kuzunura magazini
  55. ↑ Chilengiwa. doi:10.1038 / s41586-023-06896-7. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |2= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Text "Catherine F." ignored (help)
  56. ↑ {{cite magazini |ŵalembi= Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE |mutu= Kukolerana kwa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vinyama |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga 1069–1080 |chaka= 2008 |pmid= 18267943 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erm328 | [vinyama vyakukhwaŵa]], nga ni Elysia viridis na Elysia chlorotica, nawo ŵakusunga ubwezi wa symbiotic na chloroplasts awo ŵakukora kufuma ku mtundu wa algae mu vyakurya vyawo. ndipo pamanyuma ŵakusunga mu mathupi ghawo (wonani Kleptoplasty). Ici cikovwira kuti vinyama ivi vikhaleko waka na ungweru kwa myezi yinandi pa nyengo yimoza.<ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR |dazi= Meyi 2000 |mutu= Vinyama vya mu nyanja ivyo vikugwira ntchito na nkhongono za zuŵa. 123 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 29–38 |doi= 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 |pmc= 1539252 |p02}re >Template:Kuzunura magazini
  57. ↑ {{cite journal |vauthors= Xiong J |mutu= Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru: kasi mtundu wake ukaŵa wuli? |magazini= Genome Biology |buku= 7 |magazini= 12 |masamba= 245 |dazi= 2006 |pmid= 17210067 |pmc= 1794423 | Paoli L, Ruscheweyh HJ, Forneris CC, Hubrich F, Kautsar S, Bhushan A, Lotti A, Clayssen Q, Salazar G, Milanese A, Carlström CI, Papadopoulou C, Gehrig D, Karasikov M, Mustafa H, Larralde M, Carroll LM, Sánchez P, Zayed AA, Cronin DR, Acinas SG, Bork P, Bowler C, Delmont TO, Gasol JM, Gossert AD, Kahles A, Sullivan MB, Wincker P, Zeller G, Robinson SL, Piel J, Sunagawa S | kulongora-ŵalembi= 6 |zuŵa= Julayi 2022 |mutu= Nkhongono ya vyamoyo vya 607 |magazini= 7917 |masamba= 111–118 |doi= 10.1038/s43705-022-00201-9 | Mutu: kulongosora vyamoyo na vyamoyo |journal= Kafukufuku wa Photosynthesis |buku= 142 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 87–103 |zuŵa= Okutobala 2019 | 15841 J, Koblížek M |zuŵa= Meyi 2014 |mutu= Mtundu wakugwira ntchito 2 111 |magazini= 21 |masamba= 7795–7800 |bibcode= 2014PN11.7.AS. = 10.1073/pnas.1400295111 |kufika pa doi= kwaulere | pmc= 4040607 |
    • Cyanobacteria, ni vinyama pera ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na mphepo ndipo ni vinyama pera ivyo vikuŵa na mitundu yiŵiri ya vyakupangika na ungweru (mtundu I (RCI), uwo ukumanyikwaso kuti mtundu wa Fe-S, na mtundu wachiŵiri (RCII), uwo ukumanyikwaso kuti mtundu wa quinone . ). Ma prokaryote ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ghakhalako ghali na anoxygenic photosynthesis ndipo ghakugwiriskira ncito mitundu ya mtundu wa I panji wa II.
    • Chlorobi (mabakiteriya gha sulfure wakubiliwira) Mtundu I
    • Mabakiteriya gha Helio Mtundu I
    • Mabakiteriya ya Chlorasido Mtundu I
    • Proteobacteria (mabakiteriya gha sulfure gha pepo na mabakiteriya gha pepo ghambura sulfure) Mtundu wachiŵiri (wonani: Mabakiteriya gha pepo)
    • Chloroflexota (mabakiteriya ghakubiriŵira ghambura sulfure) Mtundu wachiŵiri
    • Maluwa ghakuzirwa Mtundu wachiŵiri
    • Eremiobacterota Mtundu II

    Cyanobacteria na kusintha kwa vyakumera vyakupangika na ungweru

    [lemba | kulemba source]

    Nkhongono ya vyamoyo yakugwiliskira nchito maji nga ni nthowa yakupangira ma electron mu vyakupangapanga vikasintha kamoza, mu musekuru wakumanyikwa wa cyanobacteria uyo walipo sono (uyo kale wakacemekanga blue-gree .n nyere). Malemba gha vyakumera ghakulongora kuti kusintha uku kukachitika kumayambiro kwa mdauko wa charu chapasi, pafupifupi vyaka 2450–2320 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha (Ma), ndipo, ŵakughanaghana kuti, kale chomene.<ref>Tomitani A, Knoll AH, Cavanaugh CM, Ohno T. Bibcode:2006PNAS. {{cite journal}}: Check |bibcode= length (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Text "kufika pa webusayiti .html" ignored (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)

  58. ↑ Template:Kuzunura nyuzipepara
  59. ↑ Rabinowitch EI. https://www. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |buku= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |kusungamo-url= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |kwizira mu= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |mulembi-link1= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |mutu= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |zuŵa= ignored (help)
  60. ↑ Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named McGraw-Hill -2007
  61. ↑ {{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Walker DA |mulembi-link1= David Alan Walker |chaka= 2002 |mutu= 'Ndipo uyo walipo kuŵala' – kuwonga kwa Robert Hill na ivyo wakachita |magazini= Kafukufuku wa vyakupangapanga vyakuthupi |buku= 73 |magazini= 1–3 |masamba= 51–54 |doi = 10.1023 / A: 1020479620680 | pmid = 16245102 | 2015-08-27 |url ya vyakusungiramo vinthu vyakale=20080309113247/http.
    2 H2 O + 2 A + (ungweru, ma chloroplast) → 2 AH 2 + O 2
    A ndiyo wakuzomerezga magesi. Ntheura, para pali ungweru, chinthu icho chikupokera magesi chikuchepa ndipo mphepo ya oksijeni yikupangika. Samuel Ruben na Martin Kamen ŵakagwiliskira nchito ma isotopu ghakupangika na ungweru kuti ŵamanye usange mphepo iyo yikufuma mu vyakupangapanga vyakupangika na ungweru yikufuma mu maji. [[Fayilo:Melvin Calvin.jpg|chigunwe|kumanzere|170px| Melvin Calvin na Andrew Benson, pamoza na James Bassham, ŵakalongosora umo vyakumera vikuŵira (nthowa yakuchepeskeramo carbon) mu vyakumera. Nthowa iyo carbon yikuchepeskeka yikumanyikwa kuti Calvin cycle, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuti ni nthowa ya Calvin-Benson, Benson-Calvin, panji nanga ni nthowa ya Calvin-Benson-Bassham (panji CBB). Mphoto ya Nobel–wasayansi uyo wakapokera mphoto Rudolph A. Marcus pamanyuma pake wakamanya umo unyolo wa magesi ghakunyamulira magesi ukugwilira ntchito na kuzirwa kwake. Otto Heinrich Warburg na Dean Burk ŵakasanga kuti I-quantum photosynthesis yikugaŵa CO2, iyo yikupangika na kupuma. 1931 Otto Warburg - Mbiri ya umoyo wake]. } Mphoto ya Nobel.org (1970-08-01). Vikasangika pa 2011/11/03.
  62. ↑ Template:Kuyowoya pa webusayiti
Kufuma ku "https://tum.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Usanisinuru_(ndiyo_fotosinfesisi)&oldid=112109"